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NUA 
THE 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE 


PUN Ge Wis iResal Ee) Ni© INA EME N 


EDITOR: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


WILLIS L. MOORE 


A. W. GREELY 
O. H. TITTMANN 


W J McGEE 
C. HART MERRIAM O. P. AUSTIN 
ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE DAVID T. DAY 


IDA M. TARBELL 
CARL LOUISE GARRISON 


MARCUS BAKER 


VOL. XIV—YEAR 1903 


PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
HuBBARD MEMORIAL HALL 


WASHINGTON, D. C. 


SMT ASOD 


NOV 9 1981 


LIBRARIES 


1903, 


~ 


CONTENTS 


Page 

The Work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey ; by O. H. TITTMANN............-46- I 
jacles iby Sk ise JBAGHNDIR SS Coben omesedead see Sabo a Ces one oO Rue ener menor anet rice naar 9 
PN OLCSEOMMVEMEZ Ie] ager tersy tere ee ee er alove tev ctei erates ay Seve ten bclerat es cuavsteysney Storer ele eneyevste leases aleslatshe 17 
AUT MianOGlinginora iio Jaye Ceo aby. oogcosc0Gns oosdob daeaccode, goood 4500 beaded 21 
IDI? SHVGIA TEIN 5 a goa Gibladeha itd Boa CEO RIG Ho ELON ciel acre E CE ree eee ae ietn 26 
cali ODELH ESN OLE PPO enreryyestreie cae eye ccie scion (ers feta e aici e ole eters) erate /asclcionste me elero ley afoselerecasesovelets 29 
Plan for Climbing Mount McKinley ; by ALFRED H. Brooks and D. I. REABURN...... 30 
What the United States Government Does to Promote Agriculture............-+++-+--+- 35 
‘CERTAPINGC INGIZI5 6 Sdobe Hoaadone Dead e OC GEO ORS eGo OR ODS eS OooTd Sa mnao caesar 39 
Is Germany the Cause of Denmark’s Refusal to Sell Her West Indian Possessions?. . 39 
The Amount of Water Hidden Beneath the Surface............00---cceeeeeeceeeees 39 
MOU ALPE TIZES wyateneel seer erefer lay states cverces acoso veh teks ciel cisteuetsionstcieierniete sien aula reislauclalaigeiadimeretersts 4o 

SiH OGhinbiES KS NHS dogs qasecesOeUaRO aE GoOmee son ORO saOEatoeD lipo dear DOO bpUaGCOS 4o 
Government Maps Recently Issued...... Rae creche erat iver severe bic ysiai ae tsca\ins sags /=is ahuiensreretore ines 41 
Testing the Currents of Lake Erie; by E. I). MOSELEY...........2-----2++2-2-00e- 41 
RECO MTAD MI CPPALE ATT Meee a ee ase nite tree eta eR CLT eel ead Nope skausve) tus ais here ee eco 42 
mebuenWcandaserotectorate’ (Sin Harry, Johnston) sep sree seers aces eels 42 

“G Alvaubanels, I=iorTS) MGewel tin /Asoose(ee,) (8, AL, IGWCS)) os gacocecodnesoadoduqs0qdsadnacdS 43 
peoTo pelea CHraniky Gy Carpenter) miles mera salaicac ot talcde elayel tne era)aleve cee ake ccapesedenora si oetorens 43 

WAL RGI ol xora Oe Iago” (“Arner Wt, 13, N(eiisbn)) oop oapsdcoodaesouaupeadasondocua0sac 43 
“The Land of the Amazons”? (Baron de Santa Anna Nery) ...........-...000ee0e-- 43 
ethan o ewan dSwNCALSETOMIe yr pays: raicvayeraievor eve siereadel orc ales, Gecialeseue nie aralavwloes ey sheloven avererscrers 43 

“ Iptwineienness  ((\ytlibewen ISt, Zuexeaaveles)) 5 coccodacocdaeco0snen os5s05G0b0C Bddoovove 44 
Neitionell Coqmmpine See teeasusonsdooa udend soce 0 bad oneenaD nEUtenorracedeGuecRe oro 44 
Members of the National Geographic Society..........2...2-eceeee cece renee eeeeee Appendix 
The Great Turk and His Lost Provinces; by WIL1IAM E. CURTIS... ......-..--+-e0-e- 45 
The Work of the U. S. Hydrographic Office; by W. H. H. SOUTHERLAND..... ......-. 61 
WihyaGreatisalt WakesHas) Kallen)" byl). El. MURDOCH)... .2).- ceedaecsece cesses 75 
CeOEEM Me INGIES 55 bodédoedadoccsGHoddOUN So pu CSAC OCC Ao AE RCMEemn eT SEC Or anno aG 77 
American Claims in the Antarctic; by EDWIN SWIFT BALCH........... 0. .se--00s 77 
ReclamanioukonpAnidslyandsntis Calitonnasreeeneercu acne occ ee boeken ene 78 
PLAS Kea tip SOUT Cl atay eID 1S ULE weer tele eis ericle rere tereeete ii crave ie i eveversieneles« cvaculalajeltavayerensihe evel eevecelots 79 
Recent Maps and Publications by the U. S. eroleeienl SWRVAVocbonodoaooddosoddooa 79 
Tia Der WES oo ooo cdcoounoedpogaaoodudoouDadaaunooupTempoonbAcaudaanotoason Lay OO 
Rgclasmaieoal Or tine sbi BMG, oo ogpoudpedss God eDeuE On soe cose poddaoHoDDdoouoDss 81 
(Cormiimengler INO ome IB, IRBWAT oo dadce couedubooosdneuddabenadcaoboeddoncoguencnogDes 81 
The Magnetic Work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey................-.-..08 81 
“igHae Norin ele IsGeChOal, a googagoopbanadcapabneodoDooNdocH A adCoobO4DOInOdAD 82 
Mica pspotie G tate trial air yer reves yeseisie avers ca las cfe 7s 28 oveksl revels /alelsioxeso sveueto everepeleseisvolanetahaeceaferats 82 
‘Tne Camige IigiiBom Crees, co opogg eonedooooebcHocdbNUDeGDO Godo50C0dabOScboO 82 
Report of the Brown-Harvard Expedition to Labrador in 1900...... .............-- 82 
Decisions of the U. S. Board on Geographic Names...............0-0be00+ ceveeces 82 
See cee Cm I LCLALTITC Mee teeee PP Meret yaya eves oi sie) a fae (aus eis (9 !oa wl, sheer ssciatalaiaielslvy eysyahcusiave sisiatedsetotersislete 83 
ittetmeakeNatotalebar ku (iJao:) Dillet) er nts)<)-tey-1-a)-)2|-layelaloin) slelebeselcleie’shetelelste\areierelorste 83 
“Commercial India in 1902’” (Bureau of Statistics).......... ceccccescccceccecsse 83 


(111) 


IV Tue Nationa GrocrarHic MAGAZINE 


Page 
List and Catalogue of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Publications.:.............- 83 
SO PATA OLA yy, 7) cu hapete Siepemie ern VAGa Biss sensi els) als orstavwin VSS SORTER ME EE REE eee 83 
Wersteell Ccoparyoewe SoSeo7, ceases aacodae o eadnecgs coae=s0 soocandeudzobenD ooNC> 84 
The Canadian Boundary ; by JoHN Ww. Foster sist stale dei avalavessbets shakalere tiers etere erates eens 85 
Mountains on Unimak Island, Alaska; by FERDINAND WESTDAHL.........--.---+---+- gI 
Opening of the Alaskan Territory ; by HARRINGTON EMERSON...........2.+00+e0-00-0: 99 
he sB orests|of.iGanad are yar tech oveicis cin sea erie. avs oiesslosetaiss ore Eee ROR EE Ene OR ecrnes 106 
Work ini:theibar! Southey occ e reals abacaie st C cio tevarcta eee eo mone CER Eee eee 109 
@heories of iMolcanicHAction yes alos ae ave select el eee see eee ein ae 110 
GeographicuNotes serra racist fi tayaie\sicyarehaveizrele(voipi she reictere ei Potente Cle atte efor eee EE ter SETS III 
AhesHoundenotsthesomithsonan) lnstitutionee eee ere eee ee ee Corer ee eee eee eee ree III 
GazetteerofathepPhilippines erry oes serene ee eee een een eee Eee EE EEErEe 112 
DhesDevelopmentioflCubas cs. 625d shai cleiecaiseisyoea=jseee cers) ae. 0 Un eeea eRe 112 
AdimMlysabiaASs loy7 (C, IBV MP WOON poo goccnosacsoqcaDocouncodS GoacgeoTooSseccee 114 
BureaujotsHorestry saws e lccis sisjeresa ele seielerores Capelerere eieles Seiaia pero aceite ele reee II5 
Arcentina-Chil esBoundanyeAward sneer eee ere eee eee eereee eee eeerrn - T15 
phieyAlas|anyBoundanye Dis plte wee e eee aee treet cere eerie nericoes a) ipobecounds 116 
Wind Velocity and Fluctuations of Water Level on Lake Erie................-..--- 116 
he Pittshuro, CoallMistricti4- sciences sreteieieeee sleseae cis oe ee eee eee eee eee 116 
AdaS NES, Jews, lor As We IMUMCEE Go oooopaccdunbobacesoOD.UEEaUbOFes Sa00G005 116 
Division of Hydrology of the U. S. Geological Survey .............--2+--22+- sees 116 
ferrin ge Pish eriesys tava. t css) Seva ie ayers ievepveid every Son reae ioe aPC eee Eee eee cle Gee 117 
Navigation of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea..................-----+--- 117 
Neg kava IlonGleray INES 5666 dcHac000bs 000d 5a6500480550070950000006 pisielce Serenata 117 
JD) gil dbp LA Chto nyebiomomuc Goon coo MeCeo RCO Conner anAGasoae seacobeodeoddbEdscsooc II7 
Proceedings of the Section of Geology and Geography of the American Association 
forehnesAdvancenentoMSClencCeeEe etree ere hore aoe eee Eee EEL Eeeee II7 
Soya, O, 12, ANTASIN 5 sooocccncco ses Nae aN ne ee MO RO Se te A aA Goole 117 
Wikio SAS Ot INGwr Words GES, oogcacognosco nag aaccoadcnoGGOs Soud0ees502+25000 5 tits) 
Wigs OF UNS Pap. wos05 conescousoduasaanogDEeoGeaso [ess 300 SpadOanSS Ss SL 
Dis tunbancesmnunthe Wes tein dics Heme eel elie ete ete irre 118 
By aly UAGIESS Goa4 oaccocenuos ves voucou sD aduobOnOnoaeScdsoeSaUcoseIaSSsOrON coscdS 118 
Ceoramyo meal Soeisn7 Oi Wes IASC ..o5505 socc00es0 So0d0dads soe sonsecssa506 Soe atts} 
Salmon and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska...... ......  -..-.--- BBW oU DOB deOeSs ees 118 
ishin ssingthehSouthhoeaislan d SaeeaE ent neeeeee eee rei eee ene 118 
American Geographical Society.............- HERG ASBE omdOnS ean auodoomnorocaoueD 118 
Geosraphichviteratures pee e Roeper eee cereale ratte it eit 119 
“Handbook of Birds of the Western United States’? (Florence Merriam Bailey)..... 119 
“The Tragedy of Pelée’’ (George Kennan).......... ..... BEA OT one San ERA OOS & II9 
“The American Cotton Industry’’ (T. M. Young)...............---+ --+ee+-+---- 120 
“‘Vear-Book of the Department of Agriculture Ig0I”’............+----- +--+. +e+-s- 120 
IBYoO)ids) INGAAS so acossocousS SosacsHNoy go5052¢0s07 0009 ovagesoododosdoce Godosas 121 
“Japanese Oyster Culture’’ (Bashford Dean).......... LAUR Ee NGS yA rs SS eer 122 
Publications by the U. S. Geolagical Survey. ............ 6222 esse eee e neces cee 122 
Atppalachiankorest Resenye user e ree rieee ener eee irr Sah Shes ome eco wae 123 
By-Laws of the National Geographic Society......,..-.-+--. 02+ seer eee : 123 
Reindeer in Alaska; by GILBERT H. GROSVENOR........ ..2-:-++2---0 ++ eee: epee yl 27) 
RaleishiRocks nyo a h6 Ae Ne WEIN RE Soya reerciats RET EAN dete ana een eee dado 148 
emegnene ing Yucatan Fiber; by E. H. THOMPSON...... - -  ----+-+ +++ sees 15° 


A Report of the Eruption of the Soufriére of St yaa 1812; from the Evening ewe 
Ok fiers Ho, WA oo bocsoavenadocnooo400 Sena PR SSO Samodots.) Boers Hiden stale 158 


GONTENTS 


CORT APT CHINOLES ategetetetetre myn ete teray ates eicketene ieuslele avai « esi jecateseistakelsiayeajaie eitaneveya scoteterepstonsicueiziel 
Explorations Among the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska........... sedodacganocnooce: 
Seansicin Aviercghe WegrxeMsein, 5 t5cag5epdobacbegeasooueadeassnandspedeporenadesoade 
Sinyay Of. wae Cral (Canyon Ge eydeocode eco noo SOs dncemen ean emcee eocenmoen Cntr 
Geography in the University of Chicago ............... Jan BORA GOOM ERAS oo con ue 
EbITePASCentrormi tery eres tamper ssrteiatelciete eiclelsve tsi «lois lel esevaetei ys) ciate atsy ais ‘eve se eheietersyeuelelas 
Irrigation Plans in Five States........-......2-:0--- Ga ABSA C ODES Ca OMBO ONO A ado 
internalliConmercelofsthe United Statestaa.ss-- eee ere a bY Jeondabe oo 06 
IN@eleveceretoyel Tn \WWAxomaniorer Zhayel (Coykoravalo, 5-4 ccancoagodocddansodoodooonauDGsq00GKCS 
WeparimMentions CommercesandWaborseren cocci ciel ein oeil-leiacieeieliaies iets 
The Possibilities of Southern Appalachian Streams..............-.00:00 eee cece e eee 
Mera JRANSS, bloc oso nasuanso SoU UT BormeE bes OdonoM eu babode oAoMeDadedaner cis bmon er 


PRL CR SATIN OSELS CALE Reon Tey nd Se say. ahora as anor oret ted beye nceuelinie, sit iiareiavallars syunvateceveusierees 
Mae Cupstag Of aS WMerAnMesY oo poocdodobdospoumee eas bape voacuuenouase esp oucooDoUdS 
FIMoaren, Wizio, Wiraines IDINCE 66 poops sooobdooooGobabOnOOOUbODUSHoGodoDDOODDEOC 
A Map of the Dairy Region of New York State boodoge cbpog eooasoouG 08 Aganeood 
The United States—Land and Waters ; by Cyrus C. ADAMS..........-..-.2-0 sees e eens 
The Conquest of Bubonic Plague in the Philippines.................00ee cece ee eee eee 
IK ROVSAeTUS wa ENS Clsy Ot Wari, sscogcsagobancoodeododcudcodn voougusonccooonudds 
Ati erIcanpDevelopmention the: bhilippinessanan-seereceiteeine eer ciaciereas sees cir 
Benpier hie Gardentot thesPhilippinesi-ncs-see peers ias elise leitken eit ai 
Hine Brathisia Goymtin olen IWsqorsebtilorn,ocoboo ce cconegdsuoudoc eno boosumagnodaddssnOI000eD 
(Ceo orap li cpNOteseteyyarerparsterciereaisteye ate cet see estate toa eta UN eu csatcVoder sl eve siepateyereca’ ‘vale euslanciels'sjepea%s 
IBLE CATE OLMHOLES Ehyateyee teiaty terse iraceaies i | an betceteustelers cee skoiensyerncietine [ube alrers ale dakelapsasyshevsye 
bnepNewalbrans-CanadayRatlwaiycic) mis wee ceeice acti se eile cree sie clersieke scicio ele 
Ex PediOMetopbunkestan wwe s ye cea ents afe reve kt ctor iah cle eiakelnie Srorerey Heke oie Sea wlSiayere : 
(CeolocicaliSurnveyseeeeoeieee roe eee SHG: chide ta cue bd da peer mor em S pooosocane 
GeologicalrustarnyoteNewnVorka Cityeer tiie en eee ciiciine scaeieclciiiiscie 
hues odaksVevelopinpy Machines) ier Leeper cic cee ccc 
Nation alm Geographicnsociebys mec ervey versicioce iets chevorctoie oie sle alsseveisicave oiersvereieca crete sie 
Annual Excursion of the National Cenaeniite SHH Hycosbagepoosososcusococases as 
IDK GERAACIENISOIE So edo dos Oats GAO ERO EOE H GOO RS COSCO RE ree eR ITE mS arisen 
Mei Gall Wemorialy Awardees ete cee) se eraeyieciee aie ddwodwauuloset da padbocopoooogted 
CGeoora Pi CBLCLAcuTe wp yyy ern ter irate evn eae ele/cece ee Sell i a)elei aie italeleiele verezelatsselelayarae 
C6 Awaqeneciuien” (IBtakynbo Ghyntie NS) oo so oscodadodeauondoodoauuuaesmoonpsoeouces 4656 
(CeolopicpanrohiNewm Vonks tates otra lence ei oe oe nin oe eel eee 
The Tetrahedral Principle in Kite Structure; by ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL........... 
Appendix of Seventy Illustrations of Kites and Structures used by Alexander Graham Bell. 
Notes on the Preceding Illustrations ; by ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL............---+.. 
Wie Zier leranduthe National Geographic Socieby-j-\ecl- ose clio cise eee nie leek ile ie 
GCOSTADHICHNOLES ei teppere te err terse ot ee ere SET See Siac ave level iol elu tsnepes sieves Sle) cieesin = elepalsleresetaren> acelenste 
National GecoocrapiiCESOGlebyzmidsrereieverceraictehee ore) <fore shale oustetelel sie ofelehe tie) sietolelerviclolelersrsasy siete 
AlEGIcEia SQUIRES, WSBLss  Gooodesnaasoooaspouncose \endeo! ube duospoocsHosDeONae4Gs 
ColdBWiscoventeswimpAllas kare erty yulstiale evetelstoleiche Velo e) otateiekeyeheesiols aisieloraseiertenele siete 
Decisions of the U. S. Board on Geographic Names................-.-20520-0--- noo 
REPOST AD MICMGILELACIILC mepny eee LR sep rete craven eksvore ial cis ela o/s latejfjaics  exey-sslaveteseyniersisrsievave ile revalevarcpseqiters 
“American Diplomacy in the Orient’’ (John W. Foster)......................----- 
MappinsiomtherptazilianieRerritoty: . csc -/ cislels cei sieles 2c ciein ve eleterelelnie aioe atejetaie cet Yereaejeveie 
The United States ; Its Soils and Their Products; by H. W. WILEY................---- 


VI Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MaGaAZzINne 


Big Things of the West; by CHARLES F. HOLDER.......:.. On ao Seas 
Pail Gin Ore 5 .nosocaces prema More ie itd Hy ee se ahde A Bae 
The Weather Bureau and the Recent Floods ; by H. C. RAN oN TIED) SeoABdon panaaas 
AN Special JAG ioe IEG HZISO oo bbe .09s oococsdsacdcsesonGco oo50 + Besseoneses> 
International Geographic Congress............. EDISGOROpN RADAR OARS: lon nb aos onbOo a 
GeographicuNotes ey oles seeps ote roves ke votes cha tolevosile ae ekg OLS e Re Ee OMEe : 
Geolocicalexplorationnnprastenty Asia seee eee eee ere er rer er eer nner 
The Norwegian Expedition to the Magnetic North Pole by Roald Amundsen. ....... 
Me etrah edralleite yang) cea aca Sais oer aidin aiclaeineeshe state a telceetne rere tre: aU ee eee ees 
IRV) IVS Brnl Was Wravhusel Seaitss.occcosonsososegagccoscdsseses 6000 o508 36 conse: 
Summer School of Geology and Geography at Cornell Unriversitsy, pocpeogezsoga0ce Bs 
The Swedish South Polar Expedition..... pocoornoc aD OODSU aE DOIOOSDoesCRS7 OSo500>2 
het GeosxraphicallSocietyzom lisbour epee eee eer eee ee Eee Eee Eee Ere ee eee Eee eEe 
Case Gowan loli Isqosabtaoyn 565650 605000 00000 ad cooN Sea beDOOOZAaNO 6056 DeD005 
dhe NationaliGeographic Societys Hlager) -eeeeer eee eee seen er eee ee eee eee 
SVenwlLledinusuei bli cations aeee een eee eC eee Coe eer ere eee eeocrere 
MhevArctio lity treet ceo se seccndy heer otty sy) ete ake te SU ere ee Eve seeps 
Robert vhs sei le sasycseyrrcserare sere esters HERE En AN baounonomAcdsonedanese Peres 
shhepReproductivesheriodsinktheslobsteLaee ere er eee eee EOE eee Eee ere ete omer ree 
The Alaskan Boundary Dispute ....... ....... Be ebebaouTON ASOD ouORDODSbeUOU0Nse° 
MherAscentiof MountiMcKanleysse 2 se) sie eeee ae CE a see ae ae 
Geographic Miteraturess a5 sisi Ceon jacks oe OSE CEE OE eer ee cir ee 
““A Teacher’s Manual of Geography ’’ (Charles McMurry) ..................------. 
“The Alaska Frontier’’ (Thomas Willing Balch)................. ES an eae 
SOLD caronyan Wiese) (Ceyal iyeemaloe)\ 5 accesso 522 so Sg065es 900008 00000020905 

“Complete Geography’ (Ralph S. Tarr andl sehear M. WIMMER) oa cosonsedeeosc0cs 
“Through the Heart of Patagonia’? (H. Hesketh Pritchard).............. .......- 
Wass Geological Survey, Publications onAllaskass)s-\eile e see eee eee eee ieee 
The United States—Her Industries; by O. P. AUSTIN.............-. Ee sete ey ore Pee sea 

Aas IGaretoyslneatorn OF Hae WWE - 4 osde socacaay » doGQvEesa20050005000 5008 are eee 
Rainfall and the Level of Lake Erie; by KH. l. MOSELHY........:.....-. ..-.-.+....... 
(GeographicyNotes Ere eeret er ae eecrne rece erare 26 29 S60 oocboUSdODSCUNRE 
The Railroads and Forestry........... shot esbebaseosd quae nsaad ooodooatone oooboT 
Woe IReaiINy AAAS Cis) WEY cocacncs a6 ovoasegeocsodoooasodae toon soogs eb oDoOsOc06 
The United States—Her Mineral Resources; by C. KIRCHHOFF. . ......-.---..------- 
Expedition into Texas of Fernando del Bosque; by BETTY B. BREWSTER......... .-.-.. 
shiesHardy Catal pasuerre cet eee ESHER HERR AA EOUSo UNE QuoDeE soo gobo baoae cou do mOOgeS 
iE xplorabionspin@libe tance nee ene ere omer r Oren te creer eee nee etter ener ce 
Gardening in Northern Alaska; by MIDDLETON SMITH .... ......-. ©. e-+e 5 s-e--eo 
» Excavations at Abydos............. : Sa TAO SOE a OMS AS Pep O aware paste isttpererstereteie 

CeopreyonlS WOES .6q06 doadcsoe sonagkoddoowdcoosoodbododsccgs Kisco dosooccocsss : 

Foreign Commerce of the United States in 1903 ..................--:-- forodawoas : 
White Population of the Chief British Colonies ...... ........... Beis aa alia pei ae eats 
Aare ekuniabbaye Ot Iwill, ococGsdscodescssas 6 ooodsersoasnoesODODIGONS DoDsaD0AGNRC 
The Geographical Distribution of Insanity in the United States ; by WILLIAM A. WHITE. 
Resin Aral Tas INOyddA INVES o6 ccnscccoss coco seo Hen oodESedND obacoDD=DIDOFDODUCbORDNS 
The Influence of Forestry upon the Lumber Industry of the United States ; by OVERTON 
Wo TRIS 5 sonncnop0 ones cabo NNGoaanOODOsOOONRoODDOSUST DAS IaNHOsGsdG0NG900 SoDHO OS 
(Cosa INUES. ss onsosddasoaa sasccaascsod20005 coooDodesbe00 adgosao00D0s gac06c0 
(COPS TmO’ FBS. oo cone Sones o0cnedooDeonDno Od DSGDDTd DONT COO OD DASEY2q000LESE0 


ContTENTS VII 


Page 
SLeawill OF ane Ibajosoenl Wiens, 6. soodsove || sobosuood wsbedeeoonbas puadbondepes 388 
Highth International Geogtaphic Congress..............-000.000052 cee ees SOS 
Pouibiay Ae CanqeSo 400 te poonadoncgeeunoeseee nas seo gb CARO ten erEEe eee Herne 3GO. 
(Cigale Wolemets IDE Eid ENWES. oooeocgoe on Hem abooucabouaEEddon mEponnonanaes 390 
rim srationvintopuse) WmitediStatessecrmcie cine cisiscyils lsfaleievsisie) siete eisis ofel= le elel=ivale« e 391 
Wi, Sh Ceolloysiteail Sirkyeyy JEMebieewCN, .66qc0c00 nodGooeKsod0GGeoGcDUDRSUOoSODUoonGS 391 
A North Polar Expedition.............. JOBS Od TOS HEH Om ab Da man Sp AEC ee mm bae ers ees On 
Nas Ageeaie OF Wits Qoreenc te Raa u conde ee ACCOM OPS nce tlies lah oie rn Gro rs Smee Dee gaia tee ce 391 
Directory of Officers and Councillors of Geographic Societies of the United States Ba ees 392 
The Wrangell Mountains, Alaska; by WALTER C. MENDENHALL.........-....---- 0005+ 395 
Rabberpelantationsmn Wexicorand| Central vAmertcalyiijeecl- eiseielel si alle sie scree 409 
Wae Zigeilere Rollare lasrqoeabibioinle ca saaniqus sab oen ey ae ac: GSES Sens | incite nace nero Aree a er 414 
The Mining Bureau of the Philippine Islands ; by CHARLES H. BURRITT................- 418 
Record Ascents in the Himalayas.......... a Sein dd BARES CUPS IGE CREE aU O Ree 420 
sblresNewn Cone on Mont PELEe.s asrrcileas. teayiicie ies sieheisiste) alee duel vicizueucle wiles wace cs uae 422 
PMlaS ane BOln dary CCISlOM recycle sisclsneis | eicieaietebe racine | clecete sthsteyrerebavese ouch aye chekeisgat' eee A 23 
Rickard sUrqubart|Goodet-aaq-scecte 9) ceeee snes We Rchalsaisisia dO ome ora idee el sco. cient 
National Georrapiic  SOCleby awh ans el kesn coh tuy cicverets ersraeteleaiede situa teleraselefoicie cys ersteievesece cbeys 425 
Unsuccessful Ascent of Mount McKinley and Mount Sorata..... er Peis Pe ois ston seast Aa eas 425 
PES RG. COlOSIGAINSUtVeyen eavea sclera is sicetevnte. oclaiae emia eo ebanjeale tere vere Bees eu ca Meieiere Reis isiee ne 425 
Ceoaraphiemiitera tunes yale sree cseo sian sretauiel dah) water shebe eveis isin sleceete SCHOO OEN DOS DOR AMEE 425 
“Elements of Geology’’ (Joseph Le Conte) SG Soe OO A Deol ceecepyea tlt cit ia 425 
BaGcocrapiiy, of Com»menrcevs (Spencer whrotter) rye isiseontercis ieliieleiterel te 426 
““The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803’ (Edited by Emma Helen Blair and James A. 
FRO DELESOU ey rercpenh pore balete eaters Nan eHan eh WAU arasn guy castatsnis el ont lacs) Sealed ev fos iayaeledeo eisyeveecteee Ma, See 426 
“The Training of Wild Animals’’ (Frank C. Bostock)............. ... ues Bea doce Cez 
aphexaswua (Georger bai GAaLrisOM) i. say eo cseciee sie nisin sie salah eioterei ale aleie lsc e eevee poos 05 CAH 
Program of Meetings of National Geographic Society, 1903-1904..............00e eee eee 428 
The Value of Arctic Exploration ; by Commander ROBERT E. PEARY.................. 429 
Surveying the Philippine Islands; by GEORGE R. PUTNAM...........-.000000-- eee eee 437 
Viera Gilt CLT a Diyas CAUMIY AUNID) RIES WS bose reve eipi cre teveyerclalas a essere ep ook. choo tele eh Cmiack nto ye ace UAE Ie 441 
INGrerone Minis Glaciers: iby) Ga Kei GILBERT ews se cisic elses eveteleleeinjeyeleerne inte ee 444 
The Grape-Growing Industry of the United States ....... .....-.-22. cece cette eee eee 445 
PHAGES CiauGSan 5 gaqsos GbE, lOO OOOO OUT EROS OCS areca Cra eterna ers BEG a Renamed ae 451 
Notes on Panama and Colombia... ....... B65 SS tio LIOR PE OCHRE REECE RTO EI IBIS ee) AG 458 
The U. S. Signal Corps....... 5 Gu yo EKO.8 381.00 050 COS He ON Lei Re ote Sadoowsp acdc. 467 
CIA DING IVKEEIRS. cocosoc bao. seodccoouedscccoonO Adon ad oomaneanponcacHoane sacs 468 
“The Island of Formosa ’”’ Gane W. Davidson).........: Shaladioua doedoodusdegae 468 
“The South American Republics’’ (Thos. C. Dawson) ...............-222--s00-- AG 
“Tn Search of a Siberian Klondike’’ (Washington B. Vanderlip) .................. 472 
PE OO SPC COLE Can alate Clete tei crete els alain ssaleveteyeaiee Un eteenhersuinlamies des SAS Py 2 472 
Recent Publications of the WU: S: Government... 2... .225255.052522005 Sete trees) cesses 474 


GUS IE Ole JUGS IRAN IDOI 


Pa 

Mapishowinsisiteroh thes Chineseijade mines: er a.:)-neleeeee renee creer eeeratnnas os 
Maplotveastern@shurkestanigerer tice act se icetro De nC nee eee Ee eee emer ee Genet 13 
Map showing geographical relation of Venezuela to the Isthmian Canal routes........... 18 
IVA Wi Oli Cara Casca see eel tetec.! uibyals cic evalu (so tibpes Seegeaehere Draie ety Senet anes Speyer mee eee Ca ea 19 
The Port of Maracaibo................... Aievakoy be ktnica lial Soca ps ope Seater een Pe Satemnstons 20 
The University—Caracas. . Sten Je tajaie ene a Bhan diay ee ee ele au ge ESET RSS ley ae nD Rte ayes tes Gl ca at a ee 21 
Watkins Glen ; a gorge carv =e rom pede 3 Grail, Rea BOs a RRO RESO cece eaeey 22 
A pebbly rock carved by rain ; Russian River, Cailtorentin nap Jepdacniocsucopooe coGo%0000s 23 
Rock edges and waste slopes, Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, Arizona............. 24 
The last house in Riggs, Oregon, a village overwhelmed by dunes. . ~—............... 25 
Planting grass to stop the drifting of sand, near Provincetown, Cape Cod, Mass.......... 25 
A traveling beach on the shore of Lake Ontario ........ ............. Suess Gods S060 26 
Dye Suen sachin iin iris Sanh, Qroeldsiolbin.. soosssegss+s00c00000 oasqse0ce0s Hoodorases- 27 
Outline map of Peary’s sledge routes and surveys........:.......-.-.. .:+------s- ~ 28 
WeD OF Wee WiClkainlesy MEO, INOS 5a00 onagscas wooosacsasoaccuenacassns00gs00000" 32 
Pilot chart of the North Atlantic Ocean (22 x 32 inches) ...... ...... ..... .... Supplement 
AN@lewishucemeteny. OS Mids ne peers meter ea eee eerie AMeyonbaomscusonsodoo 49 
Government hotels, Bosnia...... .......... .....-...-. > BOoG0s0a06 Gaon cces won FO 
The ancient Greek Monastery of St John of Rifle TBlgeacia, Be aR bios padoonodGD. oodHsaes 53 
Soflaythetcapital of sBuloariayn,.niscaeeciel ete oe eee eee ccc renee 54 
House of the Sobranye (Bulgarian National Assan), Sofa ee eae Base he ae 57 
Princeskerdinand ofvBul sania eer sae oe hacen eae nee eee ee 58 
Uta INS GPINOSHOMSIIMPE GES Ooo she opsoecse ouogdSs so bodaDooDUOdEboudeasndonpoOSAC 59 
Map showing different Alaskan ihommdloray lines claimed by United States and Canada..... go 
Outline map of Unimak Island ..... His Rees Sb exe Sci Sled COMET EIL ASIN ema Ordos G6 92 
Shishaldin from anchorage just west of Biramacies OOo ROA Ae ShSACOHBS nacwmocotdsube 66 93 
View of Shishaldin from near Pankof. ..... bb bo) MARAE Ha asus Sos SeAM esse oode 94 
View of Shishaldin from west side of Otter Cove.......................-.........---0:- 97 
View of Pogromni, Faris, and Westdahl peaks from Unimak Pass, ..... .............-- 98 
Winter freighting overland, Dawson, Yukon Territory ....... -.... 1... 0 .. esses . 00 
Wancdineythrougheth els iitatyN On ey eer ener eerie eet meee nee eee - 100 
Hauling the United States mail with nefindlas, Nowe Alaskar otis: fy eatitin ae eee eer 102 
Winterireightingsonkthecewiyalke deyind ermiam teeta eee eee 103 
Freight boat on the Niukluk River—carries 7 tons..... Date Riores SAE GTS Se eacrere 104 
Map showing stations of the four South Polar expeditions,.... .............. > eS0006 108 
DineReEKen Sooner aS rei eHG OX (CHO occas cocoon Seeesnocoesodsenesuscosseomscooces Il3 
Chart showing annual precipitation at Salt Lake City and water level of Great Salt Lake. 114 
Herd of reindeer crossing/a riverin' Siberia) = 222) ea... s- ee acees eee aaa Frontispiece 
Reindeer on the Siberian beach waiting to be loaded on the Bear..... Ain Weis erostes AE, 
Reindeerberd) Sibeniasas -casiis.clissc Win sss te ieee Se IR EE EES ROSE CREE care 12 

Unloading reindeer, St Lawrence Island, Alaska... ........... eg dais iste eS rete ele ee cts 130 
Outline map showing government reindeer eee InPAdaskalek cereale a eteyameras lee ay cnet 131 
Mr T. ly. Brevig starting on a family sleigh ride, Teller reindeer station................. 132 
A enpelniarse nll TSA Wa SWEINS Sh og docbood009 000) bog coro aeougbouse shopesodes 133 
Breakin oyappatheraroughyd Cep\SnOwWarisey tlt tet let sleet eee else ee eee 134 
Malkcinteanemmdeenlelllerrein deer stat OT mln secret tert eile petite eie errreettiele 135 


Lisr oF ILLUSTRATIONS 1X 


Page 
Freighting with reindeer, Cape raisin of Wales SAAS SIBERIA Ciein pi gbodasck, logoenede 136 
Traveling deerback through deep snow....-.5...-0 100.0 cence eee cee eect erence ence nes 137 
RUGhine th GUNTER. oogacdooousecbannauns coe HHeGsoscCuODOd GangebosoogonubeonoRclco 138 
Reindeer tethered during a halt................... UG BNR IR eR ere tue paca Oma ee oir 139 
LA Siosiskin Yyenayn Bhool Cente bon oo) puooocodoooocunosoa MbbcooucBnoosusUODOd GboDG 140 
Lieutenant Bertholf mounted on a reindeer, showing the ability of the reindeer to carry 
DUG) POWAGIS s ooniddocoorgorpenovdomagodgnoVObnE Homo eDES CODD UUEMoOOds Cos bUpUDaLOGG 141 
Reindeer digging up the snow to get the moss beneath..................- ees eeeceee ¢ Wie 
A Siberian, the owner of 10,000 head of reindeer, and a Cossack official..........-...... 143 
Pupils of public school, Cape Prince of Wales, 1902............-.00eeee eres cece nace | LAV 
Residence of Congregational missionary, Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska....: ........... 147 
RANIGIEA ROSS sobcbcoo- sdocuros, sdddnaansadee se osaumaecade copcdodaHDOdEOCUGHadashaonaco 148 
Seldonapacksonmw l/l sole rr yep tavernas tinal pein pave scinvalinrsaievn raaeladalapetsvayeyaMstuaxaiehevaeyeuanovenct 149 
A wild variety of agave found in the deep forests of Yucatan. ............... -+.:. ao. digi! 
A field of young sisal plants—two years O1d ......... eee e cece eet te eee tenes 152 
A native in the interior cleaning the fiber by the ancient method ....................... 153 
Tresses of the sisal fiber cleaned by the pacché ; native implements for cleaning fiber .... 154 
Drying sisal fiber at one of the large plantations—Yucatan ...............00e cece ee eee 155 
Balesvotssisaletiberreadyafor SHipmentcy (ter lala elidel clelaltekete icles) cieiedstotelerero/eisieisidi level sioiels 156 
Wapitus Lake and Dutch Miller Pass, Washington ......................4-4. .. Frontispiece 
Noon eethespalmettos: of pol oxic alte semiwicetee| sven icleicl sie lole sievaponnie escusials!alohalcictcin cesar weal snc evere 174 
In the white pine forests of Michigan .... .. .......-.....2005. balotol ooneDbcoubHD ae 5 
Portland, Oregon, Mt Hood in the distance.............0. cece eee eee ene e eee ee 177 
Qubtheshishsplains: awestermiKansasiyereejeleis/-lale slo). iaiciaveiele claieistieloioie) teres rererneye cucierey ieiene 178 
Ayheldiotiwatermelons western) Kansas): aja.) eis eis scree eretneiier cic rielciee ene aeleel spay Cele els > 179 
A band of 2,000 sheep grazing on the mountain slopes, Oreron BART nMOS COST oes oso 180 
Combined harvester-thresher on one of the vast wheat fields of the West............:... 181 
Map showing navigable rivers of the United States. ............22..- cece cece eee e ees 183 
Typical cholera house, over filthy open drain, Manila................. 0.00. e cence teens 188 
Typical native water-closets........ Suh D MUD TCH oes oe nace el aeo bem aaeiE pete Ne BS speaor, Ks) 
AGE y DIcAluCholeray center: map tats)etese) oisgsie spec) Tact iessusi stcieve ciel aisle bie she cbud dishetakn ens ehetome heute tes 190 
Farola district after burning of infected buildings.................0006 cece eee eee eens I9E 
Native market, showing ‘‘shacks’’ backing up against filthy open drain.... ........... 192 
MAAS OAABITIAL CC Covey tapegetars ahevres elope ote taverehonel eaton te cre teu tease lovetselovede azieie alate Mekaistater te reumoecrevniare 193 
Board of health for the Philippine Islands and presidents of provincial board of health... 194 
Street work, carried on by Filipinos under American inspectors..............-. .... ... 196 
Carretonorntreisht cartidrawny Dy/a) (Cara baOv eye tiele ice) be)-tr)-elersictcteele eres icles alee 198 
HLALLO Wt Op antl el Cut Or TCE varelejsisce/= ies talctore eich tev ele leic aterayriaie eVelebetauet eras Hey crousrareicnokay ena eros ator 199 
Sime Kiiys mS. Sovospedd oo nuadoOnDabooDaecanos orp Aros MeTOadonre Got D arianiolmam amare as 200 


Primitive Agriculture. Tagbanua women harvesting rice, Calaminanes Islands.... ..... 202 
Igorrote climbing a tree fern, Benguet. ....... .... 


PRUE DU NCOP OB HS SHIN) Gatco 204 
HRP empities when otle tive prey esi rcreretsiets sess ce sysraccitvauess apavoprisverararalcyetelsrsdeyn sinks a cieraniel stareiaue cus 205 
The Igorrote town of Cabayan, Benguet, Iuzon....................... «. arn dabceraeorta ees 206 
i-ortote mice terraces, Cabayan,, bengitet, Luzon) tl rece ei eis ee ee celeste. sce 207 
mucineh of the Gaddanes;\ Isabela; Tyizony 4). 2. ee indies ecnee he clea cee ae eee nee: 208 
Adult Negrito woman, showing relative size.... ............0..-002000e pera cating Mens 209 
Map showing route of new Trans-Canadian railway ...........0 02. e eee cece eee eee 214 
LEEETENG lave UES age) apie be 06 6 OO CTOs ARO DORN EUR DIIS Ber Sue Cheat Ain ioe ee A NRT 221 
Triangular box kite..... SoD GHT Er UD Rew MOB te OO nina rae feknpia Honk Bh aa Hain Ol Aree ears ee 222 


Compound triangular kite 5 
Dt medatentane dualecell Swmyaeriitetvats cca stexsjerevoly loysiayvaieteiern wvapnverslcemebeenela co eseo nao ne avail eevee 224 


x Tue Narionat GreocraPHic MAGAZINE 


3 Page 
Petrah Edral/frarives: pyar te ve we sree revere Le cea ears are ean eee le arate aoa a Epa sh eee 225 
Hour-celleditetrahedralikcite sempre eerie tata ent eee ee One eee mee 226 
Sixteen-celledutetrahedralvkite ser peer ere ee eee sn etre eee een nee eer eee 342)? 226 
Metrahed ral evtEs: 2) susarccatsyscscckaysuor citer olay Wave oun Baraat oy cabo OaE. LOTSA DAE eee 227 
Phe aerodrome kites ha ysasvocnsces tate avse seeisesesi aad | Abapetn ceyehoneet ape ere ore eos eee 228 
The aerodrome kite just rising into the air when pated TA, ENNIS, cogeosocss nacccanses 229 
Aerodrome Weitelimthey aires. csc scicev essa sik sony elace dates svaec cote gic fouele ey towe tes Senet ret eeprom ees 230 
Polos tint o tkite yn spaycise, feiayevevcensetayess eevee, wate alata ae eee etna 2h AE CARS ae Oey VA SR Set eae ea 230 
Body of multicellular giant kite; triangular box kite Panes ono Mioostatnonioaduonicoccoce[s 232 
Different views of a Pteciales faenite PAN 5n poaconcadgge0cnd027500008002095G000200005 233 
Multicellular giant kite rising in the air................. PE eoaa aS te SeeaspaoOsoaCOS 20007 234 
Building a windbrake of tetrahedral cells......... ye baer stat MDRE a eo Hate SAR tees Leto 235 
A completed windbrake showing method of use............... 00-22 e eee e cece cece eceees 236 
Observation house ; views of a winged boat........................ - I Sl gehen atk, areata 237 
Wiewsotvatetrahedrall winged boat... .- 149544 eeeee ieee ere 238 
Wiewsjofsainon-capsizablekiters see eeee ee eee eee eee bee eee EEE nee ee eee 239 
Views illustrating mode of studying behavior of bodies in the air..... ...............-- 240 
Views illustrating experiments with kites formed of open tetrahedral cells. ........-.... 241 
Views illustrating experiments to determine relation of center of gravity to center of sur- 

facesinhthying structures: «<<. crac cds ee eee ee eee eae ere Saapapacoceos 242 
Views illustrating experiments with varying arrangement of cells.................---.-- 243 
Views illustrating experiments with varying number of cells..............:-2...00.000- 244 
Views of a multicellular kite having six sets of cells and of a giant kite having three 

itwelvesided cells apc ios cic /fesicccls arartetahert catechol er rake See eee ie eee g6b0000 245 
Views of a hexagonal kite and a twelve-sided kite....... 02.0... oes eee eee eee ee eee 246 
Wiewsiofvaipaddlewheelikitesn semen seeeerienicnsciie ct tice RRHGe ane cnhonaonet 247 
Prospecting for gold in Alaska with reindeer as pack animal................... ieaseetae 256 
LO La VON ID SXol\ 5 cena REEMA Ean Mette cate cicks Ugs ql aL DOOROGOCOOn. InouD0 08 4000 260 
A steam plow in the great valley of California....... ....... yet cievey reeset: CET BGO COC 265 
Front view of a steam harvester-thrasher used on the Pacific coast ............ -..--- -- 266 
Rear view of steam harvester-thrasher..........-...--202-.-22 ceeeeeeee cence Sdopod08 267 
Between the walls of 100,000 sacks of wheat at Mission, Oregon ..................--+-- 269 
Sackedi wheatiawaitingushipment oe eies eee ream cence eee ce te 270 
A portion of the grain fleet in Portland Harbor, Oregon ...... ......-.-2.---2+--+-:- 271 
Thrashing rice with a steam thrasher in southwestern Louisiana ............... -..----- 273 
Harvesting rice in southwestern Louisiana.... ...... 22-00... eee eee ee eee eee 274 
Avheldtofipumpkins!srown) for seeds eepeeeee eee eee erence eae ee caer arene 276 
A field of silverskin onions on Bloomsdale farm, Philadelphia ....... ..- Se eae 277 
Cattleibeingsfattenedifonjexport- ser ee eee eee Erne ee Ce eee eee ener area 278 
A colossal Californian pumpkin. ..... hy Salt SER eae es eee aM ar cleiele ei Siac oreo tae cree 280 
AugiantCaliforniankpotatomvines eee aCe Eee ECE Cee EEE EOE EEE ECE eee een 281 
Pawledus Chait. ah iags i saxsiece sv auaceies! versecten ake AYO ENC ee Eo icsteiee eres Oersser tererens 283 
Hloodiscene Marion wAtk» March O03 hese einer ee ee eee erate eee 286 
Camps of negro refugees, flood of March, 1903.. ..... ....--2+--+--- nadeapacendsyaod 288 

Metrahedralikiteincthesain: 6c. cesoaie lorcet eee ee eee eee eceeienre 294 
Diagram showing value of manufactures in ithe United States, r810-I900...............-. 303 
Diagram showing increase in value of manufactures, I810-1900...............---.---0+- 304 
Diagram showing value of manufactures per capita, I810-1900.........-2-22-2 eee eee eee 304 
Diagram showing value of manufactures in United States, I810-1900...............--+- 303 
Diagram showing increase in value of manufactures, 1810-1840, and in each decade from 

1840-1900 booorodoosdcenoggd0n[g aabaoDdagoOd0N DODDEOES KDOGDOD sODOLoOHONOGO Codes 304 


List or ILLUsTRATIONS XI 


Page 
Diagram showing number of persons in each 1,000 engaged in manufacturing and agri. 

LIES MIO ZOTOOOM METI sana ne yey cle larl ote faiueatavert ehatalsteieieretste eseoieiee salsisiale sic teal eteleves esi oelelapatetels 305 
Diagram showing total number of persons engaged in manufactures and agriculture, 

RES HECLIVE yap a7, OU QOO Peeper ACT ies sieliiciare etavel Srelcul svc niet ebera ove ovarni ened cl ste yateretlavaia acsiMleriyera Siaveltets 305 
Diagram showing value of products of manufacture and agriculture, respectively, 1870-1900. 306 
Diagram showing value of manufactures exported, 1800-1902........--...0.02-22000+ 306 
Diagram showing per cent which manufactures formed of imports and exports, 1820-1902. 307 
Diagram showing distribution of exports of manufactures in Ig0I........ ..-.--. -.--e- 308 
Diagram showing value of manufacturers’ raw material imported and per cent which it 

forme diofetotalumportsy 1820-1902 fev.) .yoretei-reicieieis lel ais ei eteie el areieia sicieiieon elaine lal) eel 309 
Diagram showing relative value of manufacturers’ material and all other importations, 

TRBO=T1C CA, 9. db6-4 bad EO ORO SEES HOOT toe CR BER CR nO CG ei TaC ae SCE anette nEonc Meine 309 
Diagram showing growth of exports of domestic products and share which manufactures 

Horie dsoteth atatotal MT S7O—lOOTevaiaclcvearecnlncs ne send are ierereles eter eloael scala loge creda naka 310 
Diagram showing total value of manufactures exported, 1870-1901, and the share which 

Motikandestee lb formedtotthatitotalery: rey iete seks cise ay eel slelel eee oles arctaervo ieee eieterelete se = 311 
Diagram showing exports of manufactures of iron and steel, 1870-Ig0I ...............-- 311 
Diagram showing progress in the principal manufacturing industries, 1870-I90I.... .... 312 
Diagram showing value of manufactures in France, Germany, United Kingdom, and 

(havi! Shemnas, idshtoy aisle), sitstslsy atsley ou booocuddoumeonalaeceueuodauoooda ooaeeoobduas 313 
Diagram showing growth of manufactures in France, Germany, United Kingdom, and 

United States, 1840-1894.......... Ss Vovadaisasvehsusveeh avail aston SN alae ep Rud ch ey nee apa te Laage Sikes CaM ee 314 
Diagram showing coal production of Germany, United Kenedoat Bad United States, 

1875-Ig0l..... J GUTOR DOD EBOCA SCOR ORD Sbtie RAB OS ECO COMO SRT DS TAREE Docks OUI arS CannErSn 315 
Diagram showing relative growth in coal production in Germany, the United Kingdom, 

the United States, and all other countries, I870-Ig01......... ccc eeee eee tte e eee 316 
Diagram showing pig-iron production of Germany, United Kingdom, and United States, 

TSU FAC Cibo dacs bd bHe COCA OCOD ACO FICO CS IRD CCR CB EIC ROE aS In CAZES DOE cen 317 
Diagram showing steel production of Germany, United Kingdom, and the United States, 

LFATCCG ova o GOP O OOS HOE CH OUHOG ONO STDC STO a Ory oe RR CEETIES 5 ct oRr tr ei Semeur PERE Let 317 
Diagram showing copper production of Germany, Spain, Japan, and the United States, 

TARR Chisy ao yok DOO a RUG HOMO D OO DOO RO OCOO UBS CUCBUSE GAAS RAR acer RE nee SEIN HORE 318 
Diagram showing cotton production of the world, 1902.........0..... 0200-2 e ee cee eee ees 318 
Diagram showing miles of railway in the United Statesand Europe, 1850, 1870, 1880, 1902. 319 
Grove of mango trees, between Cabo Rojo and Joyua, P. R....... 6. eee eee cee eee eee 321 
Branch of mango tree with fruit, Tapachula, Mexico...... ...........02-.-22- (ee ee sees 323 
Manrotriit; showing) method of packing 35.5 <1) eine lle) olnyareln ese oles elass «iasoreioo eraie)« paon, eee 
LL 2ine@ Merde (MINED) Scag eoandeoci.osd codmodepanodonenoRanoed pete MPa seth a i Pe ca lefayel cast 326 
Mango fruit, showing method of peeling (matural size). ........ 0.0.00... eee eee ee 326 
Congratulatory letter to Robert E. Peary from Peary Arctic Club. Map... ............ 330 
Posts from the planting of 1890, Yaggy plantation.................-. 02. eee cee eee 1.2 349 
Trees which were not cut back when young—planting of 1891 . .......-.....+2 0.05200. 350 
Wood of the hardy Catalpa after lying ninety years in water . ...........-.--- +0000 351 
A twenty-year old plantation of hardy Catalpa, southern Iowa....... .........--+-0005- 352 
Outline map showing ratio of total insane per 100,000 population, Census 1880. ........ 362 
Outline map showing number population for each insane person, Census 1880.. .... .... 363 
Outline map showing location of cities having a population of 50,000 or more, Census 1890. 367 
Outline map showing ratio of total insane per 100,000 population, Census 1890........... 368 
Outline map showing white insane only, Census 1880. ........2.. 00 eee eee eee eee tenes 375 
Outline map showing number colored population for each colored insane, Census 1880 ... 376 
The cross-section of a Giant Sequoia............ .. Pa niceic anor doi ee Geol ine rine rots 383, 


SRNR SEMEL STOO SMAN e111 EES CC LLOL EAs ofa afe njsiaa talss clace eae; cis ct epsve faye nioorol Sie cieiey ave la sioxerie ole) =jeioichegne sists 385 


XII Tue NationaL GrocraPHic MaGAZINE 


‘ Page 
Guillemot eggs—St Paul Island, Pribiloff group.......... ........-- rye eiaie 3 Lisstsy atc ae 387 
Skull and tusks of the imperial mammoth discovered in the sands of western Texas ..... 389 
Panorama of the Wrangell Mountains (414 x 42 inches)..........-.-.....--- _... Frontispiece 
Mount Wrangell..... avian Honoenoepode moe i afiece aie apehela/eSlay ahSibysta a pve oh e Eee RRIE Sree ee By > Ra 397 
Mount Drums y elses see meine colnet oe oe RA eamnREEo Pans mili monty Pos 3 bist en a ry AA 401 
Snider’s Peak, as seen from the west............ ..22...---20-- cece \ epee se nae eae 404 
AU plantation) on Castillagrubber trees), 4-6 ee cee aee ee epee nec eae eee eee -. 408 
Mnative tappingya) Castilla rubberitree:s 4-45 e ee eee en eee ee eee Eee eee ene eee 410 
Native method of coagulating the milk of the rubber tree (4 fireetres) Bobo ohonwec de 34>0- 4It 
Clusters of ripe fruit of the Castilla rubber tree ..... Cb a ees oF eee eee AI2 
Members of the Ziegler Polar Expedition.......... . PUN Ie iSeries tech: Eos aici: 414 
Some of the dogs of the Ziegler Polar Expedition:.... ..............-. BASRA Veen soc AIS 
Avdeck:scene'onithe Amerika: 6 i4 ssc eco sacle seen ie eine ae an) ae 415 
S. S. Amerika of the Ziegler Polar Expedition..............-...---- SSelebier pes nae eee 416 
Embarking the Siberian ponies at Solombala, Siberia ....... ..-..--..0:--02-- eeeeeeee 4IT 
The new spine of Mont Pelée from the basin of the Lac des Palmistes.................. 422 
The top of the new spine of Mont Pelée from the crater rim..................--...--... 423 
Richard Urquhart: Goode ytd Solel ei aay, ote fer vas fa ep eneeyPeRev ss Fare ga 424 
Surveying party crossing a river on an improvised raft............--2-.-.20----. 20000 437 
Landing from an outrigger through the surf............ ..220..- ee eee eee ees eee ee 438 
U. S. Coast and Geodetic steamer Pathinder.............. etic bit Jon Bu wialacian cee eee 439 
Triangulation party starting out from Manila.....................-2. 2.20 ee eee eee scl e a AAO 
A. Panoramic view of Muir Glacier in May, 1903. ................ .2+- «-- Se AE Nea 442 
B. Panoramic view of Muir Glacier in May, 1903. -......-...---..- 205 cece eee eee eee 443 
Sketch map of Muir Inlet and front of Muir Glacier, showing positions of the ice front in 
TSGO)}andsin May}, T9O3 2): aye 24sec ys pessie ew pete aie wi ste aba e aS Ee RS ae oe erate alee oe le ari e era Fae 444 
Picking grapes in) California’ 25. Sop Vi intsns (ic acre ni oveles Mic evel Nae OSLER altel eae et epee tear 446 
Rickinparaisinigrapes inCaliforniayeeeee eee eee eeeee eae E eee eee ene eeee 447 
Dyin oyseedlessiraisins in! Californiarere ee jose eee ee ee eRe eet teers teers 448 
Stemming raisins in California.......... Seo aro melesacaer>,6 Bneaoels SAMBA IR SaS sac 449 
Packing raisins in layers in California............ .......2..2-.-2---- Sooo a0 SEoR toa aa 25 450 
The largest piece of carbon ever found. Actual SIZES Bhs ae a ene sosbogesocoosee coos: 453 
Rrocessiof breaking, thelicarbons.jaepericha- ae- cise eee eee eee ee eee . 454 
Carbon shown on opposite page as finally broken into pieces for drills..... .. SHED ROO: 455 
Diamond (SAwANs.(ape.oh \eicle eg ony he ss oeeiel a ots es aI Geto ees ae iene ele eee aye UA hae ene es 456 
An uncompleted section of the Panama Canal............-.....--20er eee eter nia 459 
Canal cutting through massive basaltic rock..............--.-.2+-+-0+--- Ra dbo deras aoc 459 
Panama Bay: The Island of Tobago, famous for its delicious pineapples................. 460 
Washerwomen, Isthmus of Panama................ BRC sre Nn as ode sake ae cas 460 
Panama : Interior of ruins of old cathedral...............2-.--.2 0-5 se eesees Fees 461 
Panama: This tower alone remains to mark the site of the great city of the sixteenth 
GSMGPEGoos60 odnogous sosepabs soo soo QboOC CUM Pood oSSEncCCuS sac. cadoosl ssoupesasa4 461 
A‘street Of Colom y ays se sg ho edo seS SAE Saleen rele aes OT ai ee ta 7a) steer 463 
Colon : Driveway of Christofer Colon, the canal suburb.................-0.0.-22- eee eeee 463, 
Colon : Residence of the superintendent of the Panama Railway Company at the entrance 
(oy tin Op bartasete sty (ane ee a See EMER MARAE MORNE Puna oes na Son Jo oo aomOnNOee 465 
Panama Bay: The Island of Naos, terminus of the "Baste miail Tine ery tiaeeia state 465 
Houses of the vRalamancantindianss.iee eee cee eee mee eee eit ects 467 
Typical vegetation of the Isthmus of Panama ............2......- 2 cece eee e eee eee 467 
Wandin gon Botelyhobagoneerariaiccecaceciccenetre GS TSN EE Batata torrets ots overs 1 SACS} 


Scenes on the island of Botel Tobago, Formosa .. . ....... . ee see eee e cece eee eee eee 471 


Y 


THE 
Y NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC 
\ MAGAZIN 


Vol, XIV JANUARY, 1903 


CONTENTS 


THE WORK OF THE U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, BY 
0. H. TITTMANN, SUPERINTENDENT |. : 


JADE. BY S. E. EASTER. ILLUSTRATED 
SOME NOTES ON VENEZUELA. ILLUSTRATED A ‘ 
AN INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ILLUSTRATED 
DR SVEN HEDIN. ILLUSTRATED 

PEARY ON THE NORTH POLE. ILLUSTRATED 


' PLAN FOR CLIMBING MOUNT McKINLEY. BY ALFRED H, 
BROOKS AND D. L. REABURN. WITH MAP : 


WHAT THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT DOES TO PRO- 
MOTE AGRICULTURE .. ‘ 


IS GERMANY THE CAUSE OF DENMARK’ Ss REFUSAL TO SELL 
HER WEST INDIAN POSSESSIONS? . : ° 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES . ‘ 

GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE : . . : : : : . 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY . 44 
MEMBERSHIP LIST NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY suceieisent 


Published for the National Geographic Society 
By McClure, Phillips & Co., of New York 


$2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number 
Eatered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter. 


CT] xaonan, | 


GEOGRAE ke f i | : ae : 
_MAGAZINE _ “E 1ee 


- &_N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, ublished for” He 
| As Nationa, Grocrapuic Society, of Washing- 
‘ton, D. C., by McCrurz, Pours & Co. ~ 
All communications should be addressed to the ~ 
- Managing Editor of the Narionar GEOGRAPHIC _ 
Magazine, Corcoran Building, Washington, D.C. .— 
- Business communications may also be addressed tom 
- McClure, Phillips & UO vat Le East awe St, ae 
_ New York City. | eo oe 


25 CENTS A NUMBER; ae 50 A YEAR 


‘ation Chiat HENRY GANNETT 
Chief Geographer, U.S. Geological Survey aie: 


Managing, Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR : 


CS He VERS 3 
¥ z ¢ ree 


: Associate Editors ee aie 
- @ENERAL A.W: GREELY cei ; A ‘WILLIS L. ‘MOORE 


Chief Signal Officer, U. S. emg. Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. 
oh Sie ee, Depariment of BENS © 
wi moaee hein a y S50, TIPE MANE © oe eS 
nologist in , Bure 5 : ee a 
American Brnoleey: i ae td latte ons = s Coast pa 


(© HART MERRIAM tt” °. P. AUSTIN ete Spee 
-. Chief of the Biological Survey, U. Ss. Sarees Chief of ae \Purcau: SE ae 
Deparinent of Scheie bbe Sense ergot U. ip saber Lee RG oie 


eres DAVID T. DAY 


DAVID J, BILL I eer = 
; Chief of the Divition of Mineral sat 


Assistant Secretary of Stale Momence A Resources, U.S. Dh La facet chad ee 
ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE_ See IDA M. TARBELL As? oe Pant 
~ Author of ‘Java, the Sueded of the Cet ey Author” of “Life oF ebeteon. rake 


- Bast,” etc. Bie he pe AIC of Lincoln," eke. 
pe 2 CART, DOUIBE: GARRISON > 


MARCUS BAKER. ae z trans 
U.S. Geological Survey ee oe. reas ee cog ‘Schoo, of, Wash Sa 


WASHINGTON, D.C. 


Wor XIV; No. 1 


a 


mae U.S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY~* 


By O. H. Tirtmann, 


IVE years from now the Coast and 
KF Geodetic Survey may celebrate 
the centenary of the act creat- 
ing it, for it was in 1807 that Congress 
passed ‘‘An act for surveying the coasts 
of the United States.’’ The President 
was authorized and requested to cause 
a survey to be taken of the coasts of the 
United States, in which shall be desig- 
nated the islands, shoals, with the roads 
and places of anchorage within 20 
leagues of any part of the shores of the 
United States, and also the respective 
courses and distances between the prin- 
cipal headlands, together with such 
other matters as he may deem proper 
for completing an accurate chart of 
every part of the coasts within the ex- 
tent aforesaid. He was also to cause 
such examinations and observations to 
be made with respect to Saint Georges 
Bank and any other bank or shoal and 
the soundings and currents beyond the 
distance aforesaid to the Gulf Stream 
as in his opinion may be especially sub- 
servient to the commercial interests of 
the United States. 
To Professor Patterson, of Philadel- 
phia, is due the credit of having urged 
the undertaking, and to President Jef- 


*An address before the National Geographic Society, 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGIRAIPIENIC 
MAGAZINE, 


JANUARY, 1903 


Bu 


SUPERINTENDENT 


ferson and Secretary Gallatin of having 
interested themselves and given their 
support to the suggestion of Professor 
Patterson. 

In 1807 the coasts of the United 
States extended from the eastern bound- 
ary of Maine to the northern boundary 
of Florida, for the latter still belonged 
to Spain. The coast of Louisiana be- 
tween the Sabine and the Mississippi 
had recently been acquired, and gave 
to the United States a small, if impor- 
tant, strip of coast onthe Gulf. These, 
then, were the coasts which at that time 
were deemed needful to be surveyed in 
the interests of commerce. Not that no 
charts existed of the regions in ques- 
tion; Des Barres, His British Majesty’s 
Surveyor General for the Colonies, had 
begun the good work, which was inter- 
rupted by the War of the Revolution, 
but at best the results of his surveys 
were meager, insufficient, and inaccu- 
rate. 


ITS INCEPTION 


may be worth while to call atten- 

tion to and to dwell for a moment on 
e unusual but eminently practical and 

s nsible measures that were taken to 


November 21, 1902. 


2; Tue Nationa GrocraPpHic MaGAZzINne 


bring the Survey into existence after it 
had been authorized by Congress. 

Mr Gallatin’s first step was to invite 
the opinion of scientific men as to the 
plans to be adopted, in a circular setting 
forth the objects to be attained. ‘Thir- 
teen replies were received, and these 
were referred to a committee of the 
American Philosophical Society, which 
recommended the adoption of the plan 
submitted by Mr Hassler. We shall 
presently see that 36 years later another 
committee of learned men, called to- 
gether to reorganize the Survey, affirmed 
and adopted the scientific methods of 
Hassler and adapted them to the larger 
work devolved on the Survey by the 
extension of our domain. It thus hap- 
pens that in the case of the Coast Survey 
the most competent authorities of the 
times were consulted to prescribe the 
principles on which the work was to be 
carried out. This later generation of 
men may well be thankful for the pre- 
vision of the two statesmen who gave 
direction to the work, and for the wis- 
dom of those who conceived in those 
early days the broad lines on which the 
work was to be conducted; for though 
the methods have been modified, 
changed, and perfected, the principles 
then prescribed have guided the Survey 
ever since. 


THE NEED FOR A COAST SURVEY 


The problem before the Survey was 
to perform a national as well as an in- 
ternational duty. It behooves every 
country, in the interests of humanity, to 
safeguard the lives and property which 
are continually at stake on the great 
highways of commerce along the shores 
of the oceans; and the first step toward 
the fulfillment of this obligation is to 
map the coasts and chart the waters, in 
order that the mariner may have before 
him a graphic guide of the routes he 
must follow to insure the safety of the 
lives and property committed to his 


charge. The high seas claim their 
victims through fogs and storms and 
collisions, but to the experienced navi- 
gator the open ocean is a place of safety, 
while a proximity to the coasts, even 
where surveys and light-houses have 
minimized the risks, inspires feelings of 
grave responsibility and even of dread 
of hidden dangers, of unknown cur- 
rents, and of collisions where busy 
commerce concentrates in narrowing 
lines the coming and departing ships. 

Mr Hassler, whose plan was adopted, 
was a Swiss by birth, a man of great 
learning and well qualified by experi- 
ence to outline the scientific principles 
on which an extended survey was to be 
conducted. Histask was a difficult one, 


. for neither men trained in the profession 


nor instruments were to be had in our 
country, nor was there a common ap- 
preciation of the importance of the work 
at that time. He went to England in 
1811 to procure instruments, but the 
war with that country deferred the ac- 
complishment of his purpose. It was 
not until 1816 that he was appointed 
Superintendent, and though he immedi- 
ately began his operations with vigor 
they were cut short by the practical 
abolition of the Survey two years later 
through the revocation of the authority 
to employ civilians on the work. Its 
connection with the Treasury Depart- 
ment ceased, and the country became 
dependent for its charts on the private 
enterprise of the Messrs Blunt, of New 
York, and on fitful and unsystematic 
surveys made under the Navy Depart- 
ment. On the recommendation of the 
Secretary of the Navy the original act 
of 1807 was revived and the Survey was 
resumed in 1832 under Mr Hassler’s di- 
rection, and it was again placed under 
the Secretary of the Treasury, only, 
however, to be retransferred to the 
Navy in 1834. ‘This arrangement again 
proved to be unsatisfactory, and in 1836 
the Survey was finally placed under the 
Treasury Department. 


Tue U. S. Coast anp Gropetic Survey g 


Suggestions for changing its status 
were again made, and its condition of 
apparent unstable equilibrium prompted 
Congress to take the matter in hand. 
Reference has already been made toa 
committee which was appointed by act 
of Congress in 1843 to reorganize the 
Survey. It consisted of six commis- 
sioned officers—that is, two officers of 
the Navy, four of the U. S. Topograph- 
ical Engineers, all experienced in the 
work of the Survey, and three civilians. 
The act of Congress provided that the 
work should be conducted in accordance 
with the plan of reorganization of this 
committee, but prescribed that as many 
army and navy officers should be em- 
ployed upon the work as would be com- 
patible with the successful prosecution 
of the work. 

At the same time the committee made 
the following recommendation : 

“« Resolved, ‘That inasmuch as the ob- 
ject and purpose of the survey of the 
coast refers principally to the commer- 
cial interests of the country, and as all 
the laws of Congress in relation to the 
same contemplate the employment of 
civilians and officers of the army and 
navy upon said work, it is the opinion 
of this board, and they do hereby re- 
spectfully recommend, that it should be 
under the control and considered a part 
of the Treasury Department.”’ 

The President’s formal approval of 
the plan of reorganization and of the 
recommendation just recited placed the 
Survey under the Treasury Department, 
where it has remained ever since. 

Before describing its present organi- 
zation, it must be explained why the 
original one was gradually modified by 
the withdrawal of army and navy officers 
from participation in its work. 

During the Mexican war the with- 
drawal of all the navy officers was 
threatened, and nearly all the army offi- 
cers were withdrawn. At the outbreak 
of the civil war in 1861 all army and 
navy officers were withdrawn and the 


connection of the Army with the Survey 
ceased altogether. The navy officers. 
did not return until about 1870, but as 
the needs of the country required the 
continuation of the Survey, its execu- 
tion was entrusted entirely to civilians 
during these years. 

At the outbreak of the Spanish war 
the progress of the Survey was again 
endangered by the sudden withdrawal 
of all the navy officers and enlisted men 
of the navy. With the concurrence of 
the Secretary of the Navy, Congress 
made provision to put the Survey onan 
entirely civil basis. Its present organi- 
zation may be described as follows: 


PRESENT ORGANIZATION 


The head of the Survey, called the 
Superintendent, reports to the Secretary 
of the Treasury. The Superintendent 
is charged with full responsibility in 
every respect for all the work of the 
Bureau. He is aided in such of his 
duties as cannot be delegated to officers 
of lower rank in the organization, by an 
Assistant Superintendent, who acts as 
Superintendent in his absence. 

Hight officers or groups of officers re- 
port directly to the Superintendent and 
Assistant Superintendent, viz: 

The assistant in charge of the office. 

The inspector of hydrography and 
topography. 

Inspector of geodetic work. 

Inspector of magnetic work. 

The disbursing officer. 

Editor. 

Chiefs of field parties. 

Heads of suboffices. 

The first four of these officers have a 
general supervision over all the opera- 
tions of the Survey indicated by their 
designation, each acting as an advisory 
officer to the Superintendent in regard 
to the specified portions of the work. 
The chiefs of field parties and the heads 
of suboffices have direct charge of all 
operations in the field. f 


4 Tue NarronaL GrocrapHic MaGAZzinE 


Each field party is a temporary or- 
ganization which is created for a specific 
operation by an order of the Superin- 
tendent, which makes one of the officers 
of the field force the chief of party, and 
if necessary assigns to him as subordi- 
nates one or more other officers from 
the same force. ‘The party is disbanded 
when the work assigned to it has been 
completed. If the party is for duty on 
land, the remainder of the organization 
of the party, the hiring of recorders, 
laborers, drivers, etc., is left entirely to 
the chief of party. If the party is for 
duty on a vessel, the assignment of an 
officer of the field force to command the 
vessel carries with it necessarily the 
command of the whole force on board 


the vessel, including watch and deck- 


officers as well as crew. 

Congress has provided for over roo 
field officers, of which number about 77 
are subject to ship or shore duty, and 
are also subject to office duty between 
field seasons, while about 30 are mainly 
engaged in hydrographic surveying and 
ship duty. 

The Survey has its own fleet of twelve 
steamers and six sailing vessels, aside 
from launches and other small craft. 

There are at present two suboffices, 
each in charge of a field officer report- 
ing directly to the Superintendent, viz., 
at San Francisco, California, and Ma- 
nila, Philippine Islands. The purpose 
of these suboffices is to aid in the prompt 
dissemination of information, to serve 
as storage depots, and to save traveling 
expenses by providing points at which 
the field officers may be temporarily as- 
signed to office duty between the seasons. 
At the Manila suboffice the publication 
of preliminary charts is authorized. 


DUTIES OF THE OFFICE FORCE 


The inspector of hydrography and 
topography, reporting directly to the 
Superintendent, has general supervision 
over the classes of field work indicated 


by his title, places before the Superin- 
tendent plans for such work, makes the 
necessary inspection in the field to insure 
that the Superintendent’s orders are car- 
ried out economically and effectively, 
and is especially charged with the super- 
vision of all matters relating to the ships 
and their personnel. The Coast Pilot, 
a publication in several volumes, giving 
full description of the coast from the 
mariner’s point of view, sailing direc- 
tions, warnings as to dangers to navi- 
gation, and other information of special 
value to navigators, is prepared under 
his direction. 

The inspector of geodetic work, re- 
porting to the Superintendent, is charged 
with the duty of preparing plans for the 


‘field operations of triangulation, astro- 


nomical determinations and precise 
leveling, and of making inspections of 
parties in the field, and of records and 
correspondence received at the office 
from field parties, with a view of insuring 
that the field operations are in accord- 
ance with the Superintendent’s orders, 
are of the desired degree of accuracy, 
and are efficient and economical. 

The inspector of magnetic work, re- 
porting to the Superintendent, is charged 
with similar duties in regard to the mag- 
netic work of the Survey. 

The assistant in charge of the office, 
reporting to the Superintendent, super- 
vises the work of the office at Washing- 
ton, is charged with the disbursement 
of all moneys allotted for that office, is 
responsible for the safety and arrange- 
ment of archives and property, and 
receives all money paid to the Survey 
for charts and other publications. As 
the official head of the office, the chiefs 
of the following divisions of the office 
force report to him: Computing Divis- 
ion, Magnetic Division, Tidal Divis- 
ion, Drawing and Engraving Division, 
Chart Division, Library and Archives 
Division, Instrument Division, and Mis- 
cellaneous Division. Each of these di- 
visions, under the direction of the assist- 


Tue U. S. Coast anp GEoDETIC SURVEY 5 


ant in charge of the office, prepares 
replies for the Superintendent’s signa- 
ture to such parts of the correspondence 
as falls within its particular field, and 
also furnishes such information and 
equipment to field parties as it is within 
their power to furnish. 

In the computing division all com- 
putations in connection with triangula- 
tion, astronomical determinations, and 
precise leveling are made, appropriate 
registers of results are kept, and the 
results prepared for publication as rap- 
idly as possible. 

The magnetic division and the tidal 
division deal similarly with the compu- 
tations and publications of magnetic 
and tidal results respectively. 

The drawing and engraving division 
is divided into five sections : 

The photographing section, engaged 
in reducing, enlarging, and reproducing 
drawings for various purposes. 

The drawing section, engaged in mak- 
ing from the original topographical and 
hydrographical field sheets the office 
drawings, which are the original from 
which charts are produced, either by 
engraving on copper or by photolithog- 
raphy. 

The engraving section, engaged in 
copper-plate engraving. 

The electrotype section, engaged in 
producing from the original engraved 
copper plates by electrotype process the 
copper plates actually used in printing 
the charts. 

The printing section, engaged in 
printing charts from the copper plates 
(the lithograph printing is done by con- 
tract outside of the organization). 

The chart division is divided into two 
sections. The hydrographic section is 
engaged in completing unfinished hy- 
drographic sheets sent in from the field, 
in the correction of charts, especially 
with reference to aids to navigation 
(lights, buoys, etc.), preparation of 
monthly Notices to Mariners in regard 
to this matter, and the inspection of 


charts in their various stages of prepa- 
ration. The chart section is engaged 
in applying such hand corrections to 
charts at the last opportunity before 
issuing as has become necessary on ac- 
count of such changes, principally in 
aids to navigation, as have taken place 
after the chart was printed, and with 
the clerical work connected with the 
issue and sale of charts. 

The library and archives division has 
charge of the library of the Survey and 
the archives in which all hydrographic 
and topographic sheets and all the 
original records and computations are 
stored. 

The instrument division has charge 
of all the instruments and general prop- 
erty. Many of the best of the new in- 
struments for the Survey are designed 
and made in this division, and it is con- 
tinually engaged in repairing and re- 
modeling necessary to keep the instru- 
ment outfit at a high standard of effi- 
ciency. 

The miscellaneous division is charged 
with the purchase and distribution of 
all supplies required for use in the office 
and of such supplies as are furnished to 
field parties on requisition ; also with 
the making of requisitions for printing 
and binding, the custody of blank forms, 
stationery, etc., and the distribution of 
the reports of the Superintendent and of 
all other publications of this Bureau, 
with the exception of charts. 

As already noted, the accounting di- 
vision, at the head of which is the dis- 
bursing officer, is not a division of the 
office in the sense of reporting to the 
assistant in charge of the office. The 
disbursing officer makes all disburse- 
ments on account of the Survey, with 
the approval of the Superintendent ; 
renders a monthly account of all dis- 
bursements to the Auditor for the Treas- 
ury Department for audit by him, ren- 
ders a statement of expenditures and 
balances to the Superintendent when- 
ever required to do so, suspends returns 


6 Tue NationaL GrocRAPHiIc MAGAZINE 


for correction, or disallows, under the 
Superintendent’s direction, all items of 
expenditures irregular in form or in con- 
travention of law or regulations, and 
refers to the Comptroller of the Treas- 
ury for decision all questions of law in- 
volving a payment to be made by him. 

The editor, reporting to the Superin- 
tendent, compiles the administrative 
part of the annual report and acts as 
editor in connection with all other pub- 
lications of the Survey except the 
charts. 


THE EXTENSION OF FIELD WORK 


The acquisition of Florida and Oregon 
in 1819 and of Texas and California 
soon after the reorganization of the 
Survey before described vastly extended 
the operations, and in view of the de- 

.sirability of connecting the surveys of 
the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, a trans- 
continental triangulation was authorized 
in 1871. Hight years later, in recogni- 
tion of one of its functions, the name 
of the organization was changed to a 
of Coast ‘and ‘Geodetic Survey. 

When Alaska was purchased in Tera 
the charting of its vast and intricate 
shore line was added to the duties of the 
Survey, and still more recently, in con- 
formity with and in pursuance of the 
established policy, its labors were ex- 
tended, to use the phraseology of the 
law, to all ‘‘ the coasts under the juris- 
diction of the United States,’’ in order to 
include Porto Rico, Hawaii, Guam, the 
Samoan Islands, and the Philippines. 

The plan of reorganization contem- 
plated a chain of triangles along the 
coasts which should unite and coordi- 
nate all the localsurveys. Astronomical 


observations were to fix the geographical . 


position of the triangulation, and the 
differences of longitude between some of 
principal stations and Europe were to ke 
determined. 

The topography was to be carried in- 
land as far as would subserve the pur- 


poses of commerce and defense, and, 
resting upon the data thus obtained, 
soundings were to be made along the 
shores and seaward to insure the safety 
of commerce. Such was the simple 
scheme, but there were inherent in it 
certain requirements for the accomplish- 
ment of which extended researches in 
many branches of science were needed, 
and there were inherent in it also possi- 
bilities for greater usefulness to the na- . 
tion and the world than the mere attain- 
ment of the immediate objects sought. 
It was foreseen that the triangulation 
if carried out with sufficient care would 
ultimately form the basis of a national 
trigonometric survey. [he great ex- 


_ tent of territory to be covered indicated 


that the triangulation would be used to 
determine the size and figure of the 
earth, which is the ultimate base of di- 
mensional astronomy. ‘The need of 
compasses on the charts compelled the 
determination of at least one of the 
elements of the earth’s magnetism and 
astudy of the law of its variation. The 
rise and fall of tides required observa- 
tions along the coasts which would dis- 
close the law of their periodicity in order 
that predictions could be made long in 
advance; a needful regard to bench- 
marks to which the tides were referred 
would betray the subsidence or rise of 
the land. Observations on tidal and 
ocean currents were needful to supple- 
ment the other information on the 
charts. The determination of astro- 
nomical positions required the perfec- 
tion of existing star places, and thus 
practical astronomy was stimulated, and 
when the importance of the geodetic 
function of the Survey was recognized 
by law, the pendulum, by means of 
which the figure of the earth can be 
determined, was employed in gravity 
research. 

Deep-sea soundings and incidental 
physical observations and dredgings 
contributed no little to our knowledge 
of marine life. 


Tue U.S. Coast anp GEopDETIC SURVEY 7 


WORK DONE BY THE SURVEY 


What the Survey has accomplished in 
the 70 years of its active existence may 
be broadly stated as follows: 

It has carefully mapped about 30,000 
miles of topography and sounded out 
minutely nearly 300,000 square miles of 
water, while its deep-sea soundings 
cover a little less than a million square 
miles. The results of this work are 
shown on about 500 charts of unrivaled 
accuracy and beauty. But it must not 
be forgotten that its energies have been 
largely devoted to resurveys required 
by the constantly shifting bottoms of 
our southern shores. Bearing this fact 
in mind, it may be stated that is has 
completed a first survey of the Atlantic, 
Gulf, and Pacific coasts of the United 
States. It has observed tides at thou- 
sands of stations, and publishes annually 
in advance predictions not only for our 
own coasts, but for all the ports of the 
world to which our shipping is likely to 
go. It has covered an area of between 
three hundred thousand and four hun- 
dred thousand square miles with its net- 
work of triangulation, and has incident- 
ally completed the measurement of an 
arc of the parallel traversing our country 
from ocean to ocean, and has meastired 
an oblique are extending from Maine to 
Louisiana. 

It has run many thousand miles of 
precise levels. 

It has determined transatlantic longi- 
tudes and covered the country with a 
homogeneous system of astronomically 
determined points. It has taken an 
active part in the delimitation of na- 
tional and state boundaries. 

It has undertaken the study of the 
law of the earth’s magnetism, and made 
observations for determining the decli- 
nation, dip, and intensity at many sta- 
tions throughout our domain. 

It has published and maintains Coast 
Pilot volumes of the Atlantic and Pacific 
coasts and parts of Alaska. 


In regard to the present activity of the 
Survey,afew words will prove of interest. 
The completion of the transcontinental 
triangulation and that of the oblique are 
has rendered it possible to adopt a single 
system of geographic coordinates for all 
points in this country which have been 
trigonometrically determined, and the 
office is engaged in the great and useful 
task of making the computations and 
preparing them for publication. Coop- 
eration between the Lake Survey and 
the Coast Survey has resulted in the 
adoption by the former of the same sys- 
tem, and the necessary computations to 
bring about this unification have been 
made. At the same time, a comprehen- 
sive investigation of the deflections of 
the plumb-line throughout the area cov- 
ered by the triangulation is in progress, 
and one of its immediate results will be 
to guide the Survey in making future . 
gravity researches. 

A few years ago Congress authorized, 
by increased appropriation and legisla- 
tion, the extension of the magnetic sur- 
vey of the country. Magnetic observa- 
tories, equipped with the most modern 
and economical appliances, are being 
maintained—one in Maryland, one in 
Kansas, one at Sitka, Alaska, and one 
in Hawaii. ‘These observatories, at the 
formal request of the German govern- 
ment, are cooperating, in common with 
others under foreign governments, with 
the German and British South Polar 
Expeditions by making simultaneous 
observations. At the American observ- 
atories the magnetic instruments record 
photographically day and night the 
changes of the magnetic forces. Rapid 
progress has been made in the accumu- 
lation of magnetic data, their discussion, 
and publication. Meridian lines to aid 
surveyors are being established at or 
near county seats of the several states. 
‘There has just been issued a comprehen- 
sive volume of declination tables and 
isogonic charts. 

As a member of the International 


8 Tue Nationa GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


Geodetic Association, the Coast and Geo- 
detic Survey supervises the maintenance 
of two astronomical observatories estab- 
lished exclusively for the purpose of 
observing the variation of latitude. 

The Tidal Division has made good 
progress not alone in the reduction of 
tidal observations and in the publica- 
tion of predictions, but has devoted at- 
tention to the theoretical investigations 
needful in this important and difficult 
branch of applied science. 

The Coast Pilot Division issued last 
year a new Coast Pilot of Southeastern 
Alaska. It has in preparation another 
volume of the Pacific coast from San 
Diego to Puget Sound, and has just 


completed, in the field, an examination .. 


of the coast from Eastport to Point 
Judith. 

The triangulation along the g8th 
meridian is progressing with remarka- 
ble rapidity in consequence of carefully 
devised plans, which prescribed the 
method to be followed along efficient 
and economical lines without any sacri- 
fice of accuracy. During the last season 
an axial distance of about 400 miles was 
measured, which in itself constitutes an 
are of no mean extent. 

Speed trial courses based on the tri- 
angulation of the Survey have been 
laid out in various localities at the re- 
quest of the Navy Department. 

At the request of the states of Penn- 
sylvania and Maryland, a remarking of 
Mason and Dixon’s line has been un- 
dertaken by the Survey in cooperation 
with commissioners from those states, 
and the work is nearly finished. 

Two officers of the Survey were ap- 
pointed by the United States Supreme 
Court to take part in the remarking of 
the disputed boundary between Virginia 
and ‘Tennessee, and this work has 
reached a conclusion. 

The work of determining trigonomet- 
rically light-houses and beacons along 
the coasts of Maine and Massachusetts 
erected or rebuilt since the original tri- 


angulation was made, and elsewhere, 
was taken up and a junction was made 
between the secondary coast triangula- 
tion near Beaufort, South Carolina, and 
the oblique are near the northeastern 
corner of Georgia. 

Revisionary hydrographic surveys 
were made in Nantucket Sound, in New 
York Bay and in the Chesapeake Bay 
and its tributaries, as well as on the Gulf 
coast, and new hydrographic develop- 
ments were made on the coasts of Porto 
Rico. 


PORTO RICO 


In the survey of that island great 
progress has been made. ‘The entire 
shoreline of Porto Rico, Vieques, and 
Culebra Islands has been mapped. A 
triangulation extending from Mona Is- 
land on the west to St Thomas on the 
east has been made. It encircles the 
island of Porto Rico and traverses it in 
the direction from San Juan to Ponce. 
Surveys of all the ports have been made 
and are either published or in process of 
publication. A corrected general chart 
of Porto Rico and adjacent waters em- 
bodying all the work done has been en- 
graved on copper and isin the printer’s 
hands, anda series of 4 charts on a scale 
of I : 100,000 is rapidly being prepared 
and two of these will soon be issued. 
Tidal and magnetic observations have 
been made at numerous points. The 
harbor charts which have been pub- 
lished or which are about to appear are 
those of San Juan, Fajardo, Culebra, 
Port Mulas, Bahia Honda, Ponce, Guy- 
anilla, Guanica, and Mayaguez. 

The hydrography of by far the greater 
part of the south coast has been finished, 
and great progress has been made on 
the west coast, but more especially on 
the east coast, which is the scene of the 
coming naval maneuvers. ‘There an 
area of no less than 400 square miles 
has to be sounded out with minute accu- 
racy, owing to the importance of the 
locality and the irregularities of the 


Jape 9 


bottom which accompany coral forma- 
tions. 


ALASKA 


In Alaska, Cross Sound and Icy Straits 
have been surveyed and much work has 
been accomplished in Prince William 
Sound, which promises to become one of 
the most important regions commer- 
cially in Alaska. During the last sea- 
son two survey vessels were at work in 
that Sound. A chart of Fox Island 
Passes and the dangerous region of the 
Sannak Islands has been published. 
One of the surveying vessels was em- 
ployed in a chronometric longitude ex- 
pedition to determine respectively the 
geographical positions of the eastern 
end of St Lawrence and the western 
end of Nunivak Islands, and a success- 
ful termination of the expedition has 
been announced. 


IN THE PHILIPPINES 


In the Philippines most gratifying pro- 


gress has been made under the direction 
of Mr. George R. Putnam, a gifted and 
energetic officer of the Survey. An 
office was established at Manila, and it 
was organized to publish the prelimin- 
ary results of the work accomplished 
with the least possible delay. 

The sub-office at Manila has published 
over thirty charts, many of them orig- 
inal surveys. It has availed itself of 
the facilities afforded by the cable and 
telegraph lines recently established and 
has determined the telegraphic longi- 
tude of the principal ports of the archi- 
pelago. Tidal and magnetic observa- 
tions have been made and sailing direc- 
tions have been printed in pamphlet 
form in addition to the continued issue 
of Notices to Mariners which were given 
to the public with great expedition. A 
small ship called the Research was pro- 
vided by the island authorities for the 
use of the survey, and a larger vessel 
has been actively engaged there for over 
a year. 


JADE 


By S. E. EasTer 


ADE, which has been found in 
every part of the world—China, 
Burma, New Zealand, Alaska, 
Mexico, and central Europe—is 

the best illustration of the universal 
passion of all primitive peoples for the 
possession of green stones. From pre- 
historic times to the last looting of 
Peking, jade has been a treasure most 
highly prized and eagerly sought. ‘The 
most famous quarries of jade are those 
of the Karakash Valley, in Chinese 
Turkestan, from which the chief sup- 
plies of the Chinese Emperors were 
drawn. 

Much confusion has arisen from the 
too general application of the term 


‘“jade’’ to kindred mineral substances, 
such as saussurite, chloromelanite, pec- 
tolite, serpentine, and fibrolite or silli- 
manite, and Dr Fischer has collected 
one hundred and fifty specimens of 
stones carelessly called jade. Properly 
speaking, jade only includes zephrite, a 
variety of amphibole, and jadeite, one of 
the pyroxene group. 

Nephrite, which occurs more fre- 
quently than jadeite,and the best-known 
quarries of which are those of Chinese 
Turkestan, is, according to Dana, a 
tough, compact, fine-grained tremolite 
(or, in green specimens, actinolite), 
breaking with a splintery fracture and 
glistening luster. Its specific gravity is 


1O 


2.96-3.1, and it varies in color from wax 
white, cream white, green white, green- 
ish gray to pale green, passing through 
many gradations to the very darkest 
green, in which variety iron protoxide 
1s present up to 6 or 7 per cent. 
Jadeite, which occurs in the Mogoung 
District, in Upper Burma, and in the 
Province of Yun-nan, China, is essen- 
tially a metasilicate of sodium and alu- 
minium and has a specific gravity of 
3-33-3-35 and a hardness of 6.5-7. Its 
luster is subvitreous and its fracture 
splintery, while in color it varies even 
more than nephrite. It may be gray 
green, bluish green, bluish gray, clear 
gray, orange yellow, smoky green, 
passing to black (the latter resembling 


the nephrite of Siberia), smoky white, - 


white with green tints and splotches, 
and apple green; also, but rarely, vio- 
let and mauve. All the green tints are, 
as arule, much brighter than those of 
nephrite. ‘The so-called ‘‘ jewel jade,”’ 
the Chinese fez ¢siz (kingfisher—feather 
color), is jadeite of an intense emerald 
hue. Itisseldom found, and then gener- 
ally in thin veins and often much flawed. 
Itis said to be harder than ordinary jade- 
ite. Much of it is taken to Canton, 
where it is converted into jewelry. In 
earlier times, this apple-green jade was 
not so highly valued as the darker olive 
shades, while the Emperors of the Ming 
Dynasty (1368-1664) esteemed pale 
bluish-green specimens above all others, 
and white next held imperial and 
Manchu fancy. 

Both nephrite and jadeite have a 
waxy, Oily surface and take a high 
polish in the hands of oriental artisans. 
When modern European machinery is 
used, a dazzling, mirror-like surface is 
obtained. Though generally opaque or 
translucent, there is a very rare variety 
known as ‘‘camphor jade,’’ from its 
appearance, which resembles a much- 
flawed crystal, and is actually transpar- 
ent in spots. Under the name of 
“oceanic jade,’’ Damour describes a 


) 


Tue Nationa, GeocrarpHic MaAGaziIne 


variety found in New Caledonia and 
the Marquesas Islands, ‘‘ which pos- 
sesses a somewhat silky luster, due to 
exceedingly delicate fibers which tray- 
erse the mass, and which has a specific 
gravity of 3.18.”’ 

Collectors of jade objects of the pres- 
ent day have given much attention to 
distinguishing, by means of the scien- 
tific tests of specific gravity, analysis, 
and microscopical examination, be- 
tween true nephrite and jadeite and the 
numerous substances which, so far as 
outward appearances go, resemble them. 
The common and predominant charac- 
teristic of all the stones to which the 
name jade from time to time has been 
applied is their tenacity. Their com- 
pactness of texture and extreme tough- 
ness recommended them in prehistoric 
times as the best materials from which 
to manufacture tools with sharp cutting 
edges. Since jade in its natural state 
was for a long time vainly sought in 
Europe, many scholars concluded that 
the jade implements found in the Swiss 
lake dwellings, or the materials from 
which they were made, must have been 
brought from the quarries in Turkestan. 
If, it was argued, jade were a product 
of the countries in which these imple- 
ments were found, how did it happen 
that it was never discovered by the races 
who succeeded the men of the Palzo- 
lithic Age? ‘There is no evidence of 
jade having been employed by the 
Greeks and Romans for any purpose, 
nor was it known in medizeval times. 
As it was only through its introduction 
from Mexico by the Spaniards that 
modern Europe was made aware of its 
existence, it was questioned whether 
Aryan wanderers could have brought 
these jade objects with them from the 
Kuenlun Mountains. Professor Max 
Muller asks: If the Aryan settlers could 
carry with them so ponderous a tool as 
their language, what is surprising in 
their having carried along, preserved 
from generation to generation, such 


JADE 


handy and valuable instruments as these 
jade celts? 

Lengthy discussions were waged as 
to how this ‘‘ venerable witness to the 
brotherhood and intercommunication of 
the human race’’ first found its way 
into Europe, and the famous ‘‘ nephrite 
question’’ long divided European sci- 
entists. By many it was insisted that 
jade implements were brought by migra- 
tory tribes from the cradle of their race 
in Asia, the perfect fitness of the mate- 
rial to the uses to which it was put, as 
well as the inherent preciousness of the 
stone, rendering such instruments of 
sufficient value to be prized and pre- 
served throughout the many genera- 
tions who lived and died ere the long 
march ended. 

Other investigators held that jade 
celts, or the material for making them, 
were objects of actual commerce be- 
tween Europe and the Orient; but Sir 
John Lubbock considers it more prob- 
able that they were passed from hand 
to hand and tribe to tribe by a system 
of primeval barter. Asa parallel case, 
he cites theétumuli of the Mississippi 
Valley, where the same mound often 
contains copper from Lake Superior, 
mica from the Alleghanies, shells from 
the Gulf, and obsidian from Mexico. 

The discovery of jade implements in 
Swiss lake villages followed long after 
their occurrence in a stone tomb in 
Normandy, in caves in Brittany and at 
Mentone, in the tumulus of Mont St 
Michel, and in southern Italy. Schlie- 
mann found thirteen jade celts in the 
Tuins of ancient Troy. One of these 
celts and one other found in Crete are 
the only white celts so far found in 
Europe. ‘The British Museum possesses 
one Babylonian cylinder of jade, and 
also a gold necklace with a small jade 
celt as a pendant. Both faces of the 
pendant are occupied by Gnostic for- 
mula engraved in Greek characters. 
The formulze are cut in the outline of a 
wreath of fourteen leaves, the ends 


Il 


being tied together with four ribbons, 
oun which are engraved different combi- 
nations of the Greek vowels, while each 
leaf is emblazoned with a holy name. 
The other face of the celt is covered 
with an inscription in eight lines. This 
celt, which is supposed to have come 
from Alexandria and, judging from the 
character of the lettering, to date from 
the third or fourth century, is the only 
known specimen of jade bearing indis- 
putable marks of either Greek or Roman 
workmanship. It wasacelt originally, 
however, and not an object of Greek 
manufacture. 

There is no ancient name for jade in 
any European language. Its name is 
derived from the Spanish pzetra de 
hijada, ‘‘stone of the loins,’’ a refer- 
ence, doubtless, to the Aztec supersti- 
tion that jade was the surest protection 
against diseases of the loins. 

Jade has been known to the Chinese 
since the earliest times as )z, or ‘‘the 
gem.’’ ‘They class the different kinds 
of jade under seventy-seven heads, but 
for the mineral itself they have no dis- 
tinct, generic name. It is the typical 
precious stone, the gem. ‘Throughout 
every age they have attached an extra- 
ordinary value to it, comparing it to 
““the subtle matter of the rainbow con- 
creted and fixed under the form of a 
stone,’’ and regarding it as the most 
beautiful substance in which human 
thought can embody itself. Confucius 
explained this by telling one of his dis- 
ciples that ‘‘in the eyes of wise men its 
polish and its brilliancy represent virtue 
and humanity, and its perfect compact- 
ness and extreme hardness the safe- 
guards of intelligence; the angles of 
jade, which, seeming sharp yet do not 
cut, represent justice ; the little buttons 
which hang from the hat or belt, as if 
about to fall, represent ceremony and 
politeness ; the sound—pure, sustained, 
and prolonged—which it gives forth 
when struck and which ceases suddenly, 
represents music ; the impossibility for 


2 


the bad shades to hide the beautiful, or 
the beautiful the bad, represents loyalty; 
the defects under the surface, yet ap- 
parent, represent sincerity ; its luster, 
like that of the rainbow, represents the 
firmament ; its wonderful material, ex- 
tracted from the mountains and waters, 
represents the earth; cut into Kuei or 
Chu, without other embellishment, it 
symbolizes virtue, and the price at which 
all the world values it symbolizes truth.”’ 

This passion for jade, the classic or 
poetic color of which is white in China, 
causes Chinese writers to use the word 
figuratively whenever they wish to in- 


Tue NationaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


dicate anything very white, very pure, 
or very perfect. In the language of 
compliment no word of praise rises- 
above that which likens beauty to jade, 
and the loftiest thought, as well as the 
highest morality, are compared to it. 
References are constantly made to it in 
poetry, as in the Emperor Kien-lung’s. 
verse— 

“While the waning moon in the westward. 

hangs like an orb of jade.” 

The most ancient of the Chinese clas- 
sical books, the Shu King, or Book of 
Historical Documents, relating to the 
period B. C. 2357 to 627, mentions jade 


- 
} UKAKSHAL 


NW A : 
y' (e@/KHOLAN 


lj? Py 


e3es: (7), 
~ 23760" 74 f 
23210* 


° 20 


Scale of miles 
40 60 


80 100 


Preliminary Survey Map of the Khotan Valley, Site of the Chinese Jade Mines. 
Dr M. A. Stein, H. M. Indian Educational Service. 


By 
Printed by Courtesy 


of Dr. M. A. Stein and Royal Geographical Society, London. 


Jape 


as one of the articles of tribute of the 
Province of Yung Kan, which embraced 
neatly all the present provinces of 
Shenhsi and Kan-su, and extended in- 
definitely northward to the desert. 

It is an old saying with the Chinese 
that ‘‘jadestonecomesfrom the Kuenlun 
Mountains, in the Province of Khotan,’’ 
and in the history of the T’ang Dynasty 
(618-906) reference is made to a yearly 
tribute of 500 pieces of jade sent to the 
Emperor by the king of that re- 


mS) 


Loose boulders of jade are often car- 
ried down by the force of the current in 
the Karakash and tributary streams, 
and they eventually become embedded 
in the soft clay banks or are deposited 
in the bed of the river. This ‘‘ water 
jade’’ is highly valued by the Chinese 
carvers, as its rough journey is a severe 
test of hidden flaws, which might other- 
wise cause the block to fall to pieces 
after much labor has already been ex. 


gion. Travelers describe the jade 
quarries as situated on the south 
face of the Kuenlun Mountains, in 
the main valley of the upper part 
of the Karakash River, south of 
the city of Khotan. They extend 
for a mile or more in length, and 
in this space are the entrances of 
at least a hundred tunnels which 
tiddle the mountain side in every 
direction, and in some cases pierce 
through the mountain to the fur- 
ther side. ‘The mineral is found 
in veins of varying thickness, in 
width from a few inches to ten 


feet, but so seamed and cracked 


as to make it difficult to find a 


piece even afewinchesthick which Eastern ‘Turkestan. 


is not badly flawed. Until the mid- 
dle of the last century China main- 
tained her authority over eastern 
Turkestan, including Yarkand and 
Khotan. The people, however, were 
Mohammedan, and in 1852 they suc- 
ceeded in throwing off the Chinese yoke 
by a general uprising, in which all the 
officials were massacred. ‘The jade 
workers, who were Chinese, probably 
fled from the quarries at this time and 
shared the fate of their countrymen. 
Their clothing, implements, and rem- 
nants of food were left in their haste, 
and were seen by Cayley when he vis- 
ited the quarries in 1871. Work has 
since been resumed, but too many of the 
expert carvers and workmen were killed 
during the rebellion for the industry to 
recover its former preéminence. 


After the Map of Dr 


M. A. Stein, Indian Educational Depart- 
ment. 
Geographical Society and Dr M. A. Stein. 


Reprinted by courtesy of the Royal 


pended on it. It is obtained either by 
digging the boulders out of the banks 
or by divers specially trained for the 
work. An inspector always accompa- 
nies these diving parties, whose duty 
it is to mark each lump as it is brought 
up, estimate its value, and finally ship 
the jade to Peking. Such pieces bring 
three times the price of quarried speci- 
mens of similar size and color. 

In many rivers of eastern Turkestan 
jade pebbles are found in abundance. 
The word ‘‘kash,’’ so often found in 
the names of rivers and places in this 
region, means ‘‘ jade’’ in Toorkee, and 
there seems little reason to doubt the 


4 


existence of the mineral along the whole 
of the Kuenlunrange. Much difficulty 
is experienced in tracing the veins, owing 
to the shifting sands. 

A huge dike of nephrite embedded in 
the rocky banks of the Raskemdaria, on 
the eastern slope of the Pamir, was an- 
other source from which the Chinese 
formerly drew large supplies of jade. 
They extracted it by lighting large fires 
on the rock and then throwing water on 
it when it became thoroughly heated. 
The rock was abandoned some years ago 
in consequence, it is said, of the illness 
of a member of the Imperial family, who 
was taken sick after having slept on a 
bed made of Raskem nephrite. A large 
block of the stone which was then on 


its way to Peking was putin chains and” 


thrown onthe roadside at Kutcha, where 
it still remains. It was from this ridge 
on the Raskemdaria that the monolithic 
tombstone of Tamerlane wascut. This 
famous tomb of darkest-green jade 
stands in a half-ruined mosque at Sam- 
arkand, and is 7 feet 8 inches long, 17 
inches wide, 14 inches high, and weighs 
about 1,800 pounds. It is broken 
through the middle, but is well pol- 
ished, completely covered with inscrip- 
tions, and rests on a white marble base. 
In addition to this and the Karakash 
quarries, the Chinese also obtained jade 
from deposits in Yun-nan, Kan-su, 
Shen-se and Quang-se, and other prov- 
inces of China. Many mines through- 
out China are owned by private indi- 
viduals, who keep the existence of their 
quarries secret, fearing the extortions 
of the government. 

Jade has also been found in fair abund- 
ance on the shores of Lake Baikal, Si- 
beria. ‘The South Kensington Museum 
possesses a large, water-worn, well pol- 
ished boulder from this region, weigh- 
ing more than half a ton. 

The Chinese use the utmost care in 
carving jade. The workman having 
determined from the natural form of 
the block, and its visible and probable 


Tae Nationa GEoGraPHic MAGAZINE 


flaws, into what object he will carve it, 
fixes it on a lathe and gives it the gen- 
eral outline. The interior is then hol- 
lowed out by first drilling, with dia- 
mond-pointed needles, innumerable lit- 
tle holes all over the surface which is to 
be broken away. When this is com- 
pletely honeycombed the partitions are 
broken down by being sharply tapped 
with a hammer. ‘Too hard a tap might 
develop some hidden flaw and shatter 
the half-finished object. The piece is 
finally polished with corundum. The 
harder the stone and the more difficult 
the cutting, the more brilliant the polish 
it is capable of acquiring. It is claimed 
the jade is softer when freshly taken 
from the quarries. So great is the dif- 
ficulty of carving jade that an elaborate 
piece may represent a lifetime’s labor. 
In Kienlung’s ateliers, in the Summer 
Palace at Peking, the workmen suc- 
ceeded each other without interruption 
night and day. Even thenmany years 
were occupied in completing a single 
piece. 

Jade is becoming more and more 
appreciated as a material for interior 
decorative construction by the splendor- 
loving Russians. By cutting the stone 
into sections an eighth of an inch thick 
it is employed for the panelling of walls 
and chimney pieces, and even window 
panes—the translucent pieces showing 
the most exquisite shading and cloud- 
ing. 

European and American collections 
owe many of their finest specimens to 
the plunder taken from the Summer 
Palace in Peking in 1860, when the enor- 
mous collections of the Emperor of 
China were at the mercy of the French 
and British forces, who were ordered 
to burn and destroy all the buildings. 
The palace ateliers, having long been 
declining in activity and in the quality 
of their productions, had in a measure 
ceased jade-cutting a few years previous 
to the sacking of the Summer Palace, 
because the tribute of jade from the 


Jape 


Turkestan mines did not come to Peking 
during the Mohammedan rebellion. 
The imperial ateliers have not been 
maintained since 1860, but the treas- 
ures of jade again gathered at the Sum- 
mer Palace were promptly sold or sent 
home by the Russian, English, and 
Italian troops, who in turn occupied 
that demesne in 1900 and 1901. ‘The 
Winter Palace, the temples within the 
imperial inclosure, and the princes’ 
palaces, in Peking, yielded up an enor- 
mous treasure of jade in rg00, nearly 
all of which has found its way since to 
Europe and America. 

The uses to which jade has been put by 
the Chinese are almost endless. Discs 
of the stone, which when struck give 
forth a clear, resonant note, are used as 
temple gongs and musical instruments. 
Ritual vessels are made of it, and it is 
to this fact that Paléologue attributes 
the peculiar veneration in which the 
Chinese hold the stone. ‘Tablets in- 
scribed with sacred writings, bowls and 
vases of fantastic form and intricate de- 
sign, statuettes of Buddha, perfect alike 
in conception and execution, candelabra, 
boxes, pencil-holders and all the para- 
phernalia of the writing-table, as well 
as buckles, bracelets, rings, hooks, but- 
tons, and other ornaments, are all 
wrought with untiring patience and 
matchless skill from the same intract- 
able material. Carved works of jade 
seldom bear any marks such as are seen 
on porcelain, whereby a date is indt- 
cated. Sometimes objects are inscribed 
with a poem or quotation, which may 
afford some clue to the date. All such 
marks are comparatively rare, and the 
style of ornamentation is generally the 
only guide. Extreme simplicity of de- 
sign and purity of form characterize the 
earliest examples, while those of later 
periods are often marvels of fantastic 
and ornate decoration. 

The Chinese rarely embellish their 
jade carvings with other substances, 
possibly owing to their excessive admi- 


ns 


ration for the stone and the symbolism 
with which they surrounded it. The 
Hindus saw in jade, however, only 
a green background for encrustations 
of many-tinted gems and gold. It af- 
forded them opportunities for the dis- 
play of their cunning, as jewelers, to 
combine the softly shaded tones of 
the jade with rubies, diamonds, and 
other stones, as well as scarcely less 
brilliant enamel. As a material for 
artistic workmanship, jade was only 
known in India from the time of the 
Moguls, who encouraged its employ- 
ment unstintingly. The arts of cary- 
ing in frost-like open-work and of in- 
laying, which found such perfect ex- 
pression in the Taj Mahal, were lavished 
in miniature on jade cups, beetle-boxes, 
sword and dagger hilts, and turban or- 
naments, for which there was an unfail- 
ing demand at court. Work ofa less 
elaborate character was sometimes exe- 
cuted, and a large jadeite tortoise found 
in a water-tank at Allahabad is now in - 
the South Kensington Museum. It is 
bluish gray in color, highly polished, 
and nearly 20 inches long. Although 
mines of jadeite exist in Burma, the 
Hindus probably drew the greater part 
of their supply from central Asia, and 
much of that now sold by them as 
Yarkand jade is only chloromelanite 
and serpentine. 

When Captain Cook visited the mid- 
dle island of New Zealand the natives 
told him it was called Te Wahi Pounanu, 
or ‘‘the place of the green stone,’’ be- 
cause all of their much-valued green 
stones came from that island. In old 
atlases the island is still called Tavai 
Poenammo, a corruption of the native 
name. ‘The natives, like the primitive 
inhabitants of Europe, fashioned weap- 
ons called ‘‘Meri’’ from the coarser 
varieties. Like the celts of the Lake- 
dwellers, too, many of their implements 
show traces of having been formed by 
sawing. ‘There isa large block of New 
Zealand jade in the British Museum re- 


16 


taining the cutter’s grooves, and the 
New York Museum of Natural History 
contains a similar piece from a primitive 
Alaskanworkshop. Of the finer and more 
translucent specimens of jade the New 
Zealanders carved their ‘‘tiki.’’ These 
objects were worn about the neck, and 
are said by some to have been title deeds 
of land, as well as venerated charms and 
symbols of ancestor worship. There is 
a grotesque figure of New Zealand jade 
in the British Museum which was evi- 
dently carved with much care. The 
eyes are inlaid in mother-of-pearl. 

Jade implements, chiefly celts. have 
been found along the entire coast of 
British Columbia and Alaska from the 
Straits of Fuca to the Arctic Sea, and 
arrow-heads have been brought from 
the Arctic coast of both Alaska and 
Siberia. Such stone implements were 
highly valued by the Indians, who in 
some cases still preserve them, although 
they no longer use them. The majority 
of jade celts which owe their origin to 
this region have been discovered in In- 
dian graves, in shell heaps, and on the 
sites of former villages. Whether the 
jade thus employed was brought from 
Asia or found on the spot was for a long 
time an open question. The discovery 
of the mineral 77 szfw in the vicinity of 
the Fraser River and in rolled pieces on 
the Lewes branch of the Yukon has 
placed its origin beyond dispute. 

Jade was known to the Aztecs as the 
‘divine stone,’’ and was valued next 
to the emerald, with which it was often 
confused by the early Spaniards. Asa 
religious symbol, it was placed on the 
altars. It was carved by the Aztecs in 
the form of parrots’ heads, fish, etc., 
and worn as a charm against kidney 
troubles and epilepsy. ‘This supersti- 
tious esteem for the medicinal qualities 
of the stone was carried to Europe by 
the Spaniards, and at one time there 
existed jade merchants in Paris who 
sold medals of jade as a remedy for 
these diseases. [he Aztecs also carved 


Tue Nationa GEoGrRaPHic MAGAZINE 


masks from jade, which were used in 
the temples to cover the face of the 
most illustrious of the gods when the 
King fell itl, They did not remove 
them until the recovery or death of the 
patient. At other times these masks 
served as a decoration of the temple 
walls. 

_ InCentral and South America similar 
uses for jade and jade-like stones ob- 
tained, and, as in every other quarter 
of the globe where the stone was known 
and used, it was held in an esteem 
amounting, in many cases, to actual 
reverence. 

Collections of jade are found in nearly 
all the great museums of Europe, per- 
haps the most notable being that of the 
South Kensington Museum, which pos- 
sesses superb examples of the jewel- 
inlaid Indian jade. The specimens in 
the British Museum are valuable chiefly 
from a mineralogical and archeological 
point of view. A number-of choice 
pieces are owned by the Musée Ethno- 
graphique in the Louvre and the Musée 
Guimet, in Paris. The Musée Chinois 
at Fontainebleau owes its fine collection 
of jade to the gifts of French officers to 
the Hmpress Eugenie after their return 
from the campaign in China in 1860. 

*Jade objects which have been presented 
to the imperial family of Russia are ex- 
hibited in the Peter the Great Gallery 
at St Petersburg. Among the treasures 
of the Sultan in the old Seraglio at Con- 
stantinople are many sword hilts and 
other small objects of jade. 

Although these museums contain 
many individually fine specimens of 
jade, no one of them possesses a truly 
complete collection. American col- 
lectors of Orientals have long shown 
their appreciation of the beauty of jade 
objects, and the collections of Messrs 
Brayton Ives, Henry Walters, Thomas 
Waggaman, and Frederick Ames con- 
tain many unique and perfect examples 
of the jade carver’s art. It was left for 
an American, Mr Heber Bishop, of New 


Some Notes oN VENEZUELA 17 


York,* to make the first comprehensive 
and general collection of jade. The 
Bishop collection recently presented to 
the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 
*On December 10, 1902, since this article 
was written, Mr. Bishop died at his residence 
in New York City. By the terms of his will 
ample provision has been made for the preser- 
vation of his famous collection in a special 
room of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 


SOME NOTES 


\ Y ENEZUELA was the first part of 
the American continent sighted 
by Columbus. During his third 
voyage, in 1498, he first saw the coast 
from the Island of Trinidad, and thought 
that it was another island; but the fresh 
water of the Gulf of Paria, whose shores 
he coasted for several weeks, soon con- 
vinced him that great continental rivers 
were pouring into the gulf, and that the 
vast Asiatic continent at last stretched 
before him. Sickness prevented him 
from making extended explorations of 
the coast and sent him back to Hispan- 
iola. 

The following year Alonzo de Ojeda, 
accompanied by the celebrated Amerigo 
Vespucci, traced a greater extent of the 
Venezuelan coast. It was Ojeda who 
gave the country its present name— 
Venezuela.* 

‘“Proceeding along the coast, he ar- 
rived at a vast, deep gulf resembling a 
tranquil lake, entering which he beheld 
on the eastern side a village, the con- 
struction of which struck him with sur- 
prise. It consisted of twenty large 
houses shaped like bells and built on 
piles driven into the bottom of the lake, 
which in this part was limpid and of 


* Washington Irving: ‘‘ Life and Voyages of 
Christopher Columbus and the Voyages and 
Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus.”’ 
Five vols. Vol. IV, p. 166. G. P. Putnam’s 
Sons, New York. 


that city embraces every variety of the 
stone, and includes examples by pre- 
historic and primitive jade workers as 
well as the greatest gem-cutters of the 
Mogul and Chinese courts. Years of 
work have been devoted to the descrip- 
tive catalogue of this collection, which 
will be the authoritative work on the 
subject. 


ON VENEZUELA 


little depth. Each house was provided 
with a drawbridge and with canoes, by 
which communication was carried on. 
From these resemblances to the Italian 
city, Ojeda gave to the bay the name of 
the Gulf of Venice, and it is called to 
the present day Venezuela, or Little 
Venice. "The Indian name was Coqui- 
bacoa.’’ 

After a small skirmish Ojeda ‘‘sent a~ 
detachment of twenty-seven Spaniards 
on avisit to theinterior. Fornine days 
they were conducted from town to town 
and feasted and almost idolized by the 
Indians, who regarded them as angelic 
beings, performing their natural dances 
and games and chanting their tradi- 
tional ballads for their entertainment. 

‘The natives of this part were dis- 
tinguished for the symmetry of their 
forms; the females in particular ap- 
peared to the Spaniards to surpass all 
they had yet beheld in the New World 
for grace and beauty. Neither did the 
men display in the least degree that 
jealousy which prevailed in the other 
parts of the coast. 

‘“ By the time the Spaniards set out 
on their return to the ship the whole 
country was aroused, pouring forth its 
population, male and female, todo them 
honor. Some bore them in litters or 
hammocks, that they might not be 
fatigued with the journey, and happy 
was the Indian who had the honor of 


‘ 


18 


Tue NarvrionaL 


GeocGRAPHIC MaGaZINE 


Veen Seer ea eAmeeeM 


JAMAICA 


the West Indies and Florida 


Outline Map Showing Geographical Relation of Venezuela to the Isthmian Canal Routes, to 


SomE NorTres ON VENEZUELA 


bearing a Spaniard on his shoulders 
across a river. Others loaded them- 
selves with the presents that had been 
bestowed on their guests, consisting of 
rich plumes, weapons of various kinds, 
and tropical birds and animals. In this 


way they returned in triumphant pro- 
cession to the ships, the woods and 
shores resounding with their songs and 
shouts.”’ 

Venezuela has a larger area than the 
combined areas of the great States of 


19 


The republic has three zones—hot, 
temperate, and cool—according to the 
elevation of the land. The lowlands in 
the northwest are very torrid. Here 
great quantities of coffee and cacao are 
raised, which form the largest agricul- 
tural exports of the country. The 
cacao is sent mainly to France, Ger- 
many, and Spain, and the coffee, which 
averages a yearly crop of 55,000 tons, to 
the United States. South and east of the 
lowlands, extending eastward to Ca- 


A View of Caracas 


Texas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and 
Arkansas. In figures its area amounts 
to about 590,000 square miles. ‘The 
population is 500,000 less than that of 
Massachusetts. In 1891 it was 2,323,- 
527. The capital, Caracas, has 75,000 
inhabitants, Maracaibo 35,000, La 
Guaira 15,000; and Barcelona about 
13,000. About one person out of every 
one hundred is pure white, while the 
others are descendants of black slaves, 
mulattoes, etc., and Indians. 


racas, are high mountains. where, the 
climate being temperate, most of the 
people live. Caracas, the capital, is 
3,000 feet above the sea. Trade winds 
prevent the extremes of heat suffered 
in the corresponding latitude of north- 
ern Africa. The mean temperature at 
Caracas is only 71°.2 Fahr. On the 
coast it averages from ten to twelve de- 
grees higher. 

Vast llanos, or great plains, stretch 
south of the mountains, making splen- 
did runs for cattle. South again of the 


Tue Nationa, GerocrapHic MaGaAZzIne 


20 


OqivovlvyyY JO Og tJ, 


An Inrropucrion To PuysicaAL GEOGRAPHY 


2 It 


The University—Caracas 


plains, beyond the Orinoco, are vast 
forests, from which the natives get rub- 
ber, tropical woods, and vanilla. There 
are also gold diggings south of the Ori- 
noco, which yielded over $600,000 for 
export in 1g00. 

Almost nothing is manufactured be- 
yond the cheapest grades of goods. The 
larger share of the imports come from 
the United States—$3,271,000 worth in 


AN 


1901, consisting of flour, lard, hardware, 
and cotton goods, on all of which a 
heavy duty was levied. England and 
Germany send the next largest amount 
of goods. Venezuela sent in return to 
the United States in 1901 $6,645,000 
worth of coffee, cacao, and skins, all en- 
tering free of duty. The annual revenue 
of Venezuela is about $7,500,000, ob- 
tained mainly from customs duties. 


PSE RODwWeHION WO PAYSIGAL 


GEOGRAP EY = 


URING the last few years the 
general public has felt a deeper 
interest in the facts of the 


earth—in what the earth is and what it 
hides—than it has probably ever expe- 


rienced before. ‘The fearful upheavals 
in Martinique, St Vincent, and Guate- 
mala, attended by a general natural un- 
rest throughout the globe, have aroused 
a wide spread desire to understand what 


*An Introduction to Physical Geography. By Grove Karl Gilbert and Albert Perry Brigham. 


With 263 illustrations. Pp. 380. 


514 x8 inches. 


New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1go2. 


22, 


is known—little though that knowledge 
is—of the mysterious forces writhing 
under the earth’s crust. The coal strike 
in the United States has aroused an in- 
terest of a different character—an in- 
quiry as to what coal is and how it hap- 
pens to be stored in certain localities 
aud not in others as well. ‘lhe pro- 
longed and successful agitation for irri- 
gation in the West and for forest reser- 
vations has also had its share in arousing 
the public to other questions relating to 
physical geography, as, for instance, 
weathering and soils, forests and rain- 
fall. 


THe Nationa GroGraPHic MAGAZINE 


Therefore a book about Physical 
Geography, written in a simple and in- 
teresting manner and not loaded down 
with innumerable technical terms which 
are of value to the specialist but not to 
the general public, is especially wel- 
come. Such a volume has recently been 
written by Messrs G. K. Gilbert and 
A. P. Brigham, and published by Messrs 
D. Appleton & Co., of New York. 
The authors modestly call the work 
“An Introduction to Physical Geogra- 
phy.’’ It is planned especially as a 
text-book for schools and has already 
gained much success. A second edi- 


From Gilbert’s and Brigham ’s ‘‘ Introduction to Physical Geography.” 


D. Appleton & Co. 


Figure No. 1—Watkins Glen ; a Gorge Carved from Beds of Shale 


AN INTRODUCTION TO 


tion was called for within a few weeks 
of the publication of the first. But 
the volume will gain a wider field than 
the ordinary text-book, for it will ap- 
peal to that growing class of amateurs 
who have been seeking a plain but 
fascinating description of the present 
and past facts of the earth. 

The treatment, so far as possible, is 
concrete.. Wherever practicable, each 


PuysicaL GEOGRAPHY 23 


Figure No. 1 is a picture of the noted 
Watkins Glen, which during the pro- 
cess of time a small stream has carved 
in the soft rock of the mountain. In 
some places the stream has cut to a 
depth of 200 feet ; sometimes the gorge 
is scarcely more than ro feet wide, and 
at others broadens into large amphi- 
theaters, in which one’s voice echoes 
and reéchoes with weird effects. The 


From Gilbert's and Brigham1's ‘‘ Introduction to Physical Geography.” 


D. Appleton & Co. 


Figure No. 2.—A Pebbly Rock Carved by Rain; Russian River, California 


subject is opened with a type case, 
illustrated by a picture of some graphic 
example. About one-half of the book 
is given to the lands. ‘The relation of 
organisms to the earth is introduced 
wherever appropriate. 

Two hundred and sixty-three illus- 
trations, all very well chosen and ad- 
mirably engraved, accompany the text. 
By permission of the publishers, six 
typical illustrations are reproduced in 
this Magazine. 


chasm is at the head of Seneca Lake, 
New York, from which, winding and 
curving abruptly, it penetrates Glen 
Mountain for a distance of three miles. 

Figure No. 2 is a graphic example 
of the effect of rain wash. Rain has 
soaked and softened the rock: then 
little rills have started, and have grad- 
ually worn deep channels of their own 
making the high pinnacles. 

Figure No. 3 illustrates the differ- 
ent kinds of rock, some hard and some 


DA, Tue Natrona, GrocraPpHic MaGAZINE 


From Gilbert's and Brigham’s “‘ Introduction to Physical Geography.’’ D. Appleton & Co. 


Tigure 3.—Rock Edges (limestone and sandstone) and Waste Slopes 
(concealing shale). Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, Arizona 


AN INTRODUCTION To PHysIcaL GEOGRAPHY 


25 


From Gilbert’sand Brigham’s ‘‘ Introduction to Physical Geography.” 


D. Appleton & Co. 


Figure 4.—The Last House in Riggs, Oregon, a Village Overwhelmed by 


Dunes. 


soft, of which almost every mountain is 
made. 

Figure No. 4, an exaniple of wind 
work, shows a substantial house in Ore- 
gon nearly buried by drifting sand. 
In Chinese Turkestan, Sven Hedin has 
recently discovered the ruins of great 
temples where flourished 2,000 years 
ago cities with a high degree of culture 
and civilization. Here in the heart of 
Asia populous cities and lakes have 
been buried beneath drifting dunes. 

Figure No. 5 shows how some of the 
people of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 
check the advance of the sand by plant- 
ing grass, which binds the sand and keeps 
the wind from lifting it. Common olean- 
ders are used for this purpose in Ber- 
muda. Where no effort has been made 
to check its advance, a dune has been 
known to migrate as much as 70 feet in 
one year. 

The authors of ‘‘An Introduction to 
Physical Geography’’ are very well 


Attempts to hold the sand back by fences were unsuccessful 


From Gilbert’s and Brigham’s “Introduction to 


Physical Geography.” D. Appleton & Co. 
Figure No. 5.—Planting Grass to Stop 
the Drifting of Sand, near Province- 
town, Cape Cod, Mass. 


26 


From Gilbert's and Brigham’s “Introduction to Physical Geography.” 


A Traveling Beach on the Shore of Lake Ontario. 


THe NatTionaL GrocGRAPHic MAGAZINE 


D. Appleton & Co. 


The stones originally angular 


beconie rounded as the waves roll them along 


known in the scientific world. Mr Gil- 
bert, geologist of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, is a past president of the Ameri- 
can Association for the Advancement of 
Science. He was the recipient of the 
Wollaston Prize of the Geological So- 


ciety of England in 1899, aud is the au- 
thor of ‘‘Geology of Henry Mountains,” 
“Lake Bonneville,’ ete. Mr Brigham 
is head of the department of geology in 
Colgate University and the author of a 
well-known text-book of geology. 


IDR WISIN, TsUsDIUN 


HE distinguished Swedish ex- 
plorer, Dr Sven Hedin, who 
ended his last famous expedition 


to Central Asia in December, 1901,* is at 
present receiving one continuous series 


*See the National Geographic Magazine 
for March, 1902, page 96. 


of ovations throughout Europe. He 
has given lecturing tours in Sweden, 
Russia, Denmark, England and Scot- 
land, and after New Year’s commences 
a tour in Germany, France, Austria 
and Hungary, and Norway. It had 
been hoped that he would visit Amer- 
ica this winter, but he writes that his 


Dr Sven HeEpIn AG 


Hi 
Hid 


Photo by Dahllof, Stockholm 


Dr Sven Hedin in His Study, Stockholm 


28 Tue Nationa, GrocrRaPpHic MAGAZINE 


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wanes Resurveys of Coast Lines 

xxxxxxSurveys of New Coast Line 

------ Sledge Routes to the North 
++ Supply Caches 


Republished from the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society of New York 


Outline Map of Peary’s Sledge Routes and Surveys 


Prary oN THE NortrH POLE 


engagements in Europe make a trip 
across the Atlantic impossible this year. 

Sven Hedin was born in Stockholm, 
February 19, 1865. He was educated 
at the universities of Upsala, Berlin, 
and Halle, and from the last received 
the honorary degree of Ph.D. His 
first journey of exploration was in 
1885-86, from Persia to Mesopotamia ; 
in 1891 he traveled in Turkestan ; dur- 
ing 1892-’95 he traveled right across 
Asia from Russia to Peking, penetrat- 


AG) 


ing Tibet and studying the Lob-nor 
district. The results he published in 
a splendid volume, ‘‘ Through Asia’’ 
(Harper and Bros.). His latest and 
most important expedition was begun 
in 1899, and has yielded valuable in- 
formation about the geography of Chi- 
nese Turkestan and Tibet, and of the 
cities which flourished in the Lob-nor 
region 2000 years ago and have long 
since been buried beneath the desert 
sands. 


PAIR QIN Wiss, INOS leOQuUL IE: 


Geographic Society November 29, 
1902, Commander Robert E. Peary 
stated very emphatically that he be- 
lieved the North Pole could be reached 
by making Cape Hekla, in northern 
Grinnell Land, the starting point for 
the sledging trip north. ‘The average 
distance of Peary’s four Arctic sledge 
journeys over the ice is slightly greater 
than the distance from Hekla to the 
Pole and back. _ If the next arctic ex- 
plorer will make Cape Hekla his base, 
will pass the winter there, and starting 
from that point in spring fight his way 
as many miles northward over the ice 
as Peary averaged in his four journeys 
under equal conditions, he will gain the 
Pole itself and have ample time to re- 
turn before the ice pack becomes im- 
passable. To quote from Mr. Peary’s 
address : - 
“There are two facts I wish to bring 
to your attention, not in a boastful 
manner, but as bearing upon the feasi- 
bility of reaching the Pole. First, the 
average air-line distance from start to 
finish of four sledge journeys which I 
have made in high arctic latitudes is 
the same as the distance from the north- 
ern shore of Grinnell Land to the Pole. 
Second, the air-line distance from start 
to finish of my 1900 sledge journey is 


[: a lecture before the National 


such that had my starting point been in 
the same latitude as that of Abruzzi it 
would have taken me to the Pole, or 
had my starting point been in the same 
latitude as Nansen’s or on the northern 
shore of Grinnell Land, it would have 
carried me beyond the Pole. 

‘“Tt may seem to indicate overconfi- 
dence to state boldly that the Pole can 
be reached, and yet it is a fact, even 
though the struggle for it has been 
going on unsuccessfully for years and 
years. Each time we have come a little 
nearer, each time we have learned a 
little more, and I say to you here to- 
night that it is not an impossibility ; 
that it can be done, and that it is no 
more difficult than many of the great 
projects which we see being pushed to 
completion every day and which require 
money, persistence, hard work, and 
some ability to bring the full fruition. 

‘The man who can secure a starting 
point in early spring on the northern 
coast of Grinnell Land, who’ has with 
him the proper party and the proper 
equipment and experience, will held 
within his grasp the last geographical 
prize that the earth has to offer—the 
prize which will rank with the prize 
which Columbus won for himself and 
his countrymen, a fame which will last as 
long as human life exists on the globe.’’ 


30 


PLAN FOR CLIMBING 


THe NationaL GrocGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


IMEIE IMGCIKIONIE Ey 


By Atrrep H. Brooks anp D. L. REABURN 


OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


URING the past summer the 
writers were engaged in a re- 


connaissance surveyin Alaskat 
which extended from the Pacific coast 
through the Alaskan Range and along 
its western base to Yukon waters. ‘The 
route of travel lay close to the foot of 
Mt McKinley, and though it was no 
part of the plan to ascend the mountain, 
for which there was neither time nor 
facilities, time was taken to climb its 
slopes to snow line, and the members of 
the party were undoubtedly the first 
white men to approach the summit. 
The Alaskan Range is a rugged 
mountain mass which extends to the 
northeast from the vicinity of Lake 
Clark, and sweeping around the great 
Sushitna Basin forms the watershed be- 
tween Cook Inlet on the southeast and 
the Kuskokwim and T'anana waters on 
the northwest. On the east and°south 
it rises by a series of foothills from the 
Sushitna River lowland and on the west 
it falls off abruptly to a gravel-fioored 
plateau, which slopes gradually toward 
Kuskokwim waters. The southern end 
ot the range has not been explored, but 
the peaks probably have attitudes of 
from 7,000 to 9,000 feet, while to the 
northward the relief increases very 
much and the range culminates in Mt 
McKinley, over { 20,000 feet in height, 
and Mt Foraker, fourteen miles to the 
southwest, about 17,000 feet. To the 


northeast the range includes a number 
of peaks which are from 10,000 to 14,000 
feet high, Mt Hayes, lying between the 
headwaters of the Cantwell and Delta 
rivers, being the highest. The crest 
line of the range lies near its western 


margin. 


In 1898 Eldridge and Muldrow § sur- 
veyed the Sushitna River, while Men- 
denhall traversed the eastern end of the 
range; Spurr and Post crossed the 
southern end, and Peters and Brooks 
explored the region to the north along 
the Tanana River. In the following 
year, Lieut. Joseph S. Herron, U.S.A..,]|| 
made an exploration in the southern 
part of the Alaskan Range and also of 
a part of the Kuskokwim basin. ‘These 
investigations, together with the ex- 
plorations carried out by the writers, 
have outlined this great mountain mass, 
which, as has been shown, contains sev- 
eral of the highest peaks on the conti- 
nent. The results of these surveys have 
given not only geographic data, but also 
thrown much light on the conditions of 
travel, distribution of timber, and on 
the climate of this province. The time, 
therefore, seems now ripe to plan an 
ascension of Mt McKinley. 

Mt McKinley (latitude 63° 04’, lon- 
gitude 151°, see map) lies in about 
the center of the range, measured in a 
northeast-southwest direction, and its 
summit is only about ten miles distant 


* Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey. 
+A report embodying the results of this expedition is now in preparation. 
{The final adjustment of surveys have not yet been made, so that the exact altitudes can 


not now be given. 


§ For reports on these expeditions see Vol. VII, Twentieth Annual Report, U. S. Geol. Survey. 


|| ‘‘ Explorations in Alaska in 1899.”’ 
March, 1go!. 


War Dept., Adjutant-General’s Office, No. XNNT, 


PLAN FoR Ciimpine Mt McKiIntey 


from the western margin and between 
forty and fifty miles from the eastern 
margin of the mountains. It is evi- 
dent, therefore, that an expedition to 
climb the mountain should approach it 
from the northwest. This is especially 
true as the gravel-floored plateau on the 
northwest side of the range is, for the 
most part, above timber and, as it affords 
good traveling, gives ready access to 
the base of the mountains, where good 
grass is plentiful. 

The mountain itself is dome-shaped 
and has two summits two miles apart, 
differing about 1,000 feet in altitude, 
the southernmost being the highest. 
Its northwestern slope is drained by a 
large glacier, which discharges into a 
river tributary to the Toklat. The 
most -feasible route to the top of the 
mountain is probably across this glacier 
or by a ridge which separates it from a 
glacier flowing to the west and draining 
into the Tatlathna River. The topo- 
graphic map now being prepared will 
aid the climbers, but some preliminary 
exploratory work to pick out the best 
route would have to be done. The 
ascent of the mountain itself would not 
seem to present serious difficulties to 
experienced mountain climbers. The 
fact that the snow line is about 7,000 
feet, instead of being nearly at sea-level, 
as at St Elias, gives the Mt McKinley 
ascent a decided advantage. “The upper 
limit of spruce timber is about 2,500 
feet, but willow sufficient for fuel is 
found up to 4,000 feet. Pack-horses 
could find ample grass up to 3,500 feet, 
and by a careful choice of route could 
probably be taken up to snow line, on 
the slope of the mountain. 

While the writers must disclaim any 
personal knowledge of high mountain 
climbing, yet their study of the ques- 
tion would lead them to believe that 
Mt McKinley could be ascended by 
making one camp at the base and three 
on the slopes. The base camp would 
be within the zone of grass and fuel, 


31 


the next at snow line, and the other 
two at convenient points between the 
snow line and the summit. 

The actual ascent of the mountain 
will present the difficulties, toils, and 
dangers with which the experienced 
mountaineer is familiar and against 
which he will prepare himself as far as 
possible. A very serious difficulty for 
which the average mountaineer might 
be less prepared is the long and difficult 
journey to the base of the mountain. 
Though Mt McKinley in an air line is 
only about 150 miles distant from tide 
water, yet to reach its northwest base 
from Cook Inlet necessitates a journey 
of at least 400 miles. This distance 
was traversed by the writers in about 
two months, but the progress was less 
rapid than it would have been except- 
ing for the necessity of carrying on sur- 
veys and of exploring for aroute. The 
party, consisting of seven men, made 
the journey on foot, while twenty pack- 
horses, most of which were loaded with 
provisions, carried the outfit. The time 
required for the journey and the energy 
spent in overcoming obstacles, such as 
chopping trails, traversing swamps, and 
crossing rivers, makes the reaching of 
the base of Mt McKinley a serious un- 
dertaking. 

Our experience and knowledge of 
the region would lead us to propose 
three general plans for reaching the 
northwest foot of the mountain from 
which, as had been shown, the ascent 
should best be made. The first two 
plans involve a summer journey only, 
while the third would take a year for 
its execution. An examination of the 
map (page 32) will show that Mt 
McKinley lies about half way between 
the navigable waters on Cook Inlet 
and the Yukon River, which is navi- 
gated by river steamers. Either of 
these could be used as a point of de- 
parture for the long inland journey. 
If the project to climb the mountain 
were to be accomplished in one season, 


BD Tue Nationa GsrocrapHic MaGaZzine 


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PLAN FoR Crimpinc Mr McKINLey 


the base could be reached from either 
Cook Inlet or from the Yukon from 
near the mouth of the Tanana. 

If the Cook Inlet route were chosen, 
the party should land at Tyonek be- 
tween the 15th of May and the rst of 
June, equipped and provisioned for a 
three and a half months’ journey. The 
journey from Seattle to Cook Inlet 
takes about ten days by ocean steamer. 
For a party of seven men twenty 
horses would be needed, and every ad- 
ditional man would require about three 
additional horses. From T'yonek a 
boat would be dispatched with a part 
of the provisions to meet the party at 
the Skwentna, so as to lighten the bur- 
den of the horses and to aid in crossing 
the river. From this point the boat 
would be sent to the Keechatno, a 
central fork of the Yentna, and here 
again would be used for crossing. The 
pack-train would take a northerly 
course from Tyonek, crossing the Be- 
luga near the head of tide water, and 
thence heading directly for the lower 
canyon on the Skwentna; then after 
crossing the Keechatna would follow 
our trail across the Alaskan Range by 
way of Rainy Pass at the head of 
Happy River. After reaching the 
Kuskokwim waters it would turn to 
the northeast and follow the base of 
the range, the route being identical 
with that followed by our party. If 
such a party had exceptionally good 
luck (and season were an early one), it 
might reach the base of the mountain 
by the first of July. Here a camp 
would be established at the upper limit 
of timber, where good grass would be 
found for the horses. Climatic condi- 
tions permitting, a month could then 
be spent in exploring and ascending 
the mountain. The quickest way out 
of the country would probably be to 
the northward, either to the mouth of 
the Cantwell or to the mouth of the 
Toklat, from which point a boat could 
probably be secured to the Yukon. In 


318 


the absence of any boat, a raft would 
be constructed and in a few days the 
current would carry the party to the 
Yukon. ‘The cost of such an expedi- 
tion could be approximated at $15,000 
for a party of ten men. 

The second plan is to go to Dawson 
by rail and steamer and thence down 
the Yukon to the mouth of the Tanana 
by steamer. In the event of an early 
season, the party would leave Skagway 
on Lynn Canal about June rst, which 
can be reached by steamer from Seattle 
in four days, and the mouth of the 
Tanana could be reached by the middle 
of June. From this point, if possible, 
a steamer should be secured to take the 
party, outfit, and several horses one or 
two hundred miles up the Toklat to the 
head of steamboat navigation. ‘The 
continuation of the journey would be 
by canoes or small boats, which would 
carry the supplies, while the horses . 
would be sent across country. When 
the river became too shallow for canoe 
transportation the horses would be 
utilized to portage the outfit to the base 
of the mountain. It is expected that 
the expedition would be ready to 
begin the ascent of the mountain by 
the middle of July. ‘The cost of an ex- 
pedition by the Yukon route can be 
estimated at about $12,000. 

As an introduction to the third plan 
it may be said that in an expedition of 
this kind the party is liable to be worn 
out by the difficulties incident to the 
journey to the base of the mountain. 
The necessity of carrying provisions for 
the entire trip limits the size of the 
party, and hence the daily tasks must 
be shared by all its members. Under 
even the best conditions, the matter of 
chopping trails, building bridges, cross- 
ing rivers, the incessant annoyance by 
mosquitoes, has a telling effect on the 
strength of the men, in the, course of 
even a few weeks. It would, there- 
fore, be advisable, if possible, to. fur- 
nish each man with a saddle horse if 


S4r 


the overland route is taken, and thus 
save his strength for the task of ascend- 
ing the mountain. ‘These extra horses 
would, however, involve an additional 
expenditure of $1,000 or $2,000. The 
same holds true in regard to the trip 
from the Tanana with canoes, where 
the energies of the party would be 
spent in portaging and in dragging the 
canoes up against swift currents. Such 
work is very hard and before very long 
will have a marked effect on even the 
strongest. It is possible, therefore, that 
if the base of Mt McKinley was reached 
by either of these routes, the energy of 
the members of the party would be at a 
low ebb and not at all equal to the task 
_ of making the ascent. It should also 
be noted that by the two plans proposed 
the base of the mountain would not be 
reached earlier than the first or middle 
of July. The midsummer is very un- 
favorable for reaching the summit, as 
it is usually shrouded in clouds, and 
clear days are very exceptional. The 
clearest weather and most favorable 
conditions will be found in June. 

In view of these facts, it is quite pos- 
sible that even the best chosen and best 
equipped party would not be successful 
in the ascent of the mountain. It is 
the belief of the writers that success 
could only be assured by wintering a 
party in the region and transporting 
the provisions and outfits to the base of 
the mountain during the winter and 
early spring, when dogs could be used. 
With such a plan it would be possible 
to reserve the strength of the members 
of the party for the actual ascent. The 
writers would propose that a party be 
outfitted with a year’s provisions, which 
should be sent to the mouth of the Ta- 
nana by steamer, either by way of Daw- 
son or St Michaels. From this point 
a steamer should be chartered to carry 
the expedition to the head of steamboat 
navigation on the Toklat. This could 
probably be accomplished by the first of 
July, and the party could spend the re- 


Toe Nationa, GreocraPHic MaGAZzInE 


mainder of the open season in boating 
the outfit up the Toklat and in estab- 
lishing the winter camp at some con- 
venient point. nas 
During the winter, with the aid of 

dog teams, an advance party would es- 
tablish a camp at timber line near the 
base of the mountain, and also cache 
provisions at convenient points on the - 
lower slopes of the mountain. ‘This 
being accomplished during the winter 
months, when transportation is easy by 
means of dog teams, the party would 
be prepared to take advantage of the 
clear weather of June to make the as- 


cent, which, as has been shown, is a 


very important consideration. 

A modification of this plan would be 
to take a steamer up the Kuskokwim, 
which is known to be navigable as far 
as the forks, and very probably above. 
The objection to the Kuskokwim route 
is that it involves a very long steamboat 
journey, probably five hundred or six 
hundred miles, up a river about which 
very little is known. The mouth of the 
Kuskokwim lies out of the usual routes 
of travel, and the river is not easily ac- 
cessible compared with the Yukon. 

The chief point is to obtain steamboat 
navigation to as near a point to the base 
of the mountain as possible, then estab- 
lish a base camp, and distribute the sup- 
plies during the winter months. It 
probably would be advisable to take a 
few horses for the winter trip, as they 
could be utilized for transportation both 
during the summer and winter. If this 
was done feed would have to be carried 
for winter use, though, time permitting, 
it would be possible to cut grass for 
hay. 

The winter plan does not necessitate 
the entire parties spending a yearin the 
undertaking. It would be possible for 
one section to prepare the way during 
the summer and early winter months, 
while another joined them in March or 
April by traveling from Dawson with 
dog teams. 


Tue Unirep StTatTEs AND AGRICULTURE 


It is the belief of the writers that if 
the winter trip were undertaken there 
would be every reason to anticipate a 
successful result for the expedition. 
The objection to the plan is, of course, 
the time which would be required, and 
also the very heavy additional expense. 
While it is difficult to estimate the cost 
of the winter party, it is safe to say that 
it would not be less than $25,000 and 
might easily be double that amount. 

Inclosing, the writers would strongly 
urge that if the expedition is under- 
taken that it be put under the direction 
of a man who is not only an experienced 


315 


mountaineer but who has also had long 
training in frontier life and exploratory 
work, for the success of the expedition 
must depend in a very large measure on 
its leadership. They would also urge 
the necessity of having ample funds to 
thoroughly equip the party, and that 
each member be especially chosen for 
the work in hand. It is hoped that 
this article may encourage the organ- 
ization of an expedition, so that the 
eredit for the ascension of the highest 
peak on the continent may fall to some 
American mountaineer. 


WHAT THEUNITEDSTATES GOVERNMENT 
DOES TO PROMOTE AGRICULTURE 


tion that no government in the 

world does so much as the United 
States to promote the agricultural in- 
terests of the country. A tea has been 
imported which is now being grown 
successfully in South Carolina. In a 
short while enough Sumatra tobacco 
will be grown in Connecticut to satisfy 
the American market, which has been 
paying $6,000,000 annually to import 
Sumatra tobacco. A new variety of 
long staple cotton, having nearly double 
the value of the old variety, has been 
created; new wheats and new rices 
have been introduced, and even a new 
orange, which will resist frost more 
vigorously than those now grown in 
Florida. ‘These are only a few instances 
of products which are now being suc- 
cessfully raised within the United States 
as a result of the watchfulness and 
teaching of the Department of Agricult- 
ure. ‘The fixed capital of agriculture 
in the United States amounts to twenty 
billions of dollars, or four times that 
invested in manufactures. How the 


LT may be stated without exaggera- 


American farmer and the consumer are 
protected and assisted by expert care 
may be seen from the following ab- 
stract of the last annual report of Hon. 
James Wilson, Secretary of Agricul- 
ture, who has done more for the agri- 
cultural interests of the United States 
than any man in its history : 


INSPECTION OF MEAT 


The Bureau of Animal Industry has 
made nearly 60,000,000 ante-mortem 
inspections for the year, at a cost of a 
fraction over one cent each. ‘The num- 
ber of post-mortem inspections was 
nearly 39,000,000. The meat-inspec- 
tion stamp was affixed to over 23,000, 
ooo packages of meat products, and the 
number of certificates of ordinary in- 
spection issued for meat products for 
export, exclusive of horseflesh, was 
32,744. The quantity of pork exam- 
ined microscopically and exported ex- 
ceeded 33,000,000 pounds. Altogether, 
the value of exports of animals and ani- 
mal productions for the year amounted 
to $244,733,062. 


36 


LONG STAPLE COTTON 


One of the greatest needs in improv- 
ing the cotton industry in the United 
States has been to secure a long staple 
upland variety of good quality and pro- 
ductiveness. Several varieties of the 
ideal type have been produced, and the 
past year’s experiments show conclu- 
sively that these varieties can be made 
permanent. Egypt and South Africa 
are waking up to their possibilities in 
cotton production, and we must develop 
and grow better and more productive 
varieties than will be grown by our 
competitors. 


AMERICAN TEA 


The work on the growing of Ameri- 
can tea was continued during the year 
at Pinehurst, near Summerville, S. C., 
in cooperation with Dr Shepard. ‘There 
are now about 100 acres in tea gardens. 
The yield of tea in these gardens last 
year was about 4,500 pounds and this 
year will be about 9,000 pounds of mar- 
ketable tea. During the year careful 
attention was given to reducing the cost 
of the production of tea, with very sat- 
isfactory results. A tea farm will be 
established in Texas if suitable land and 
cooperation can be secured. 


LAND-GRANT COLLEGES 


Statistics of attendance at the land- 
grant colleges show over 42,000 students 
enrolled, an increase over the previous 
yearof 7 percent. The attendance for 
the four-year course in agriculture in- 
creased more than 26 per cent. The 
Secretary points to the marked success 
of agricultural high schools in Min- 
nesota and Nebraska as an indication 
that there is a demand for agricultural 
courses with those afforded in various 
manual arts in the city high schools. 
He states that all over the country 
farmers are sending their children to 
public high schools and paying for their 
tuition. 


~ pound. 


THe Nationa, GrocRapHic MaGaZzINg 


GROWING SUMATRA TOBACCO 


The commercial success of the shade- 
grown Sumatra tobacco in the Connect- 
icut Valley has now been fully assured, 
and the plan adopted by which last 
year’s crop, after being carefully cured 
and sorted under the direction of the 
department’s experts, was catalogued 
and offered for sale at public auction, 
under the supervision of the committee 
of tobacco brokers, with Hon. E. Stevens 
Henry, M. C., as chairman, proved 
highly satisfactory. The ordinary to- 
bacco grown in the open fields in Con- 
necticut brings from 18 to 20 cents a 
‘The average price paid for the 
shade-grown tobacco was $1.20 a pound. 
The cost of this tobacco, baled and 
ready for market, averaged 5112 cents 
a pound. The net profit per acre on 
the best crop raised on a lot of about 
six acres exceeded $1,000 per acre. 
The reports from cigar manufacturers 
show that the leaf of this Connecticut, 
grown Sumatra tobacco has successfully 
stood the test of manufacture. 

At the present time the department 
is advising and instructing thirty-eight 
growers in Connecticut and Massachu- 
setts cultivating 645 acres of shade to- 
bacco. It may be said of this line of 
department work that it has demon- 
strated our ability to produce a leaf for 
which about $6,000,000 have annually 
been paid to foreign countries. 

The tobacco situation in Texas and 
Ohio has been thoroughly studied with 
a view to the production of a desirable 
type of filler tobacco equal to the im- 
ported Cuban leaf, and it is believed 
that by careful methods of cultivation, 
fermentation, and assorting this can be 
done. In fact, leaf has actually been 
grown that cannot be distinguished 
from the imported Cuban when prop- 
erly fermented. 


EXPORTS OF FRUIT 


He reports investigations having for 


Tuer Unitrep STaTEs AND AGRICULTURE 


their purpose the extension of the ex- 
port trade in fruits and vegetables, and 
improvement in methods of handling 
these products for foreign and domestic 
use. Several experimental shipments 
have been made to European markets. 
The results have been fully satisfactory, 
the net returns in most cases exceed- 
ing domestic values. The net returns 
are largely influenced by the kind of 
packages and methods of packing and 
shipping. 

The examination of imported food 
products for the purpose of determin- 
,ing whether they contain substances 
injurious to life has been continued by 
the Bureau of Chemistry. Particular 
attention has been given to the adul- 
terations of olive oils, with the object 
of securing an honest market for do- 
mestic oils now compelled to compete 
with cheaper and adulterated oils. Im- 
portant investigations have been made 
in the sugar laboratory with a view to 
improving the quality and quantity of 
table sirups. 


WEATHER BUREAU WARNINGS 


The past year affords gratifying evi- 
dence of the value of forecast warnings 
of the Weather Bureau in saving life 
and property. Ample testimony is af- 
forded that the value of property thus 
saved from loss amounts to many times 
the cost of maintaining the Bureau. 
The Secretary urges the desirability of 
extending the distribution of daily fore- 
casts coextensively with the rural free 
delivery. Of the 10,000 rural free de- 
livery routes existing August 1, 1902, 
it has been found possible to serve only 
1,000. To make the distribution co- 
extensive with the rural free delivery 
would, he estimates, cost about $100,000. 


APPALACHIAN FOREST RESERVE 


The Secretary enters an earnest plea 
for the establishment of the Appala- 
chian Forest Reserve. He states that 
the water power, at an aggregate annual 


ow, 


value of $20,000,000, is being gradually 
destroyed through increasing irregular- 
ity in the flow; that the soils washed 
down from the mountain slopes are ren- 
dering annually less navigable the Ohio, 
Tennessee, Mississippi, and other rivers. 
These are'the results of the deforesta- 
tion of these .mountain slopes. He 
states that the rate of land erosion on 
these slopes from which the forest cover 
has been removed is as great now ina 
single year as during ten centuries when 
covered with primeval forests. 


WORK IN FORESTRY 


Interest in forestry and a perception 
of its possibilities as a great national 
resource have developed so swiftly in 
the United States that the discrepancy 
between the capacity for government 
service of this branch of the department 
and its opportunities was never so great 
as now. During the past year the Bu- 
reau of Forestry has notably increased 
its store of knowledge on which all for- 
estry depends and has made large gains 
in introducing practical management of 
forests of both public and private owner- 
ship. Its field-work has engaged 162 
men and has been carried on in forty- 
two states and territories. 

Extensive studies were made of com- 
mercial trees during the year, and studies 
of the forest and its industrial relations 
were made in Michigan, Kentucky, 
Ohio, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, 
South Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, 
California, and Iowa. 


STUDY OF SOILS 


The soil survey has been greatly ex- 
tended, and the division of soil manage- 
ment started during the year gives 
promise of highly important results. 
The Bureau of Soils now employs a 
force of over one hundred persons, 
seventy-five of whom have had scien- 
tific training. "The usefulness of this 
bureau has been greatly extended by 
cooperation with state institutions, ex- 


38 


periment stations, boards of agricul- 
ture, and geological surveys, as well as 
with other bureaus and divisions of this 
department of the government. An 
assistant has been furnished to the War 
Department to organize a soil survey 
in the Philippines. The area surveyed 
and mapped during the fiscal year was 
over 14,500 square miles, or not far 
from 10,000,000 acres, making a total 
survey to date of over 14,500,000 acres, 
This area is distributed in twenty-five 
states and territories and in Porto Rico. 


PUBLICATIONS 


The publication work of the depart- ~ 


ment has been unprecedently active. 
The total number of publications is- 
sued was 757. The total number of 
pages of new matter edited for publi- 
cation was 81,184. The aggregate 
number of copies of all publications 
issued was 10,586,580. Of this num- 
ber 6,150,000 were Farmers’ Bulletins, 
and of these the Congressional distri- 
bution took 4,289,126. Including the 
Year-book and other reports paid for 
by special appropriations, the cost of 
the publication work amounts to about 
$800,000, but the number of publica- 
tions is still inadequate to supply the 
demand. 


GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 


The Secretary concludes his report 
with some interesting figures illustra- 
tive of the magnitude of the agricul- 
tural industry. In 1900 the fixed 
capital of agriculture was about twenty 
billions of dollars, or four times that 
invested in manufacture. In that year 
there were nearly five million seven 
hundred and forty farms in the 
country, covering eight hundred and 
forty-one million acres, four hun- 
dred and fifteen millions of which con- 
sisted of improved land. According 
to the returns of the last census, about 
forty million people, or more than half 


THe NarionaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


of the total population in 1g00, resided 
on farms. Of the twenty-nine million 
persons reported as engaged in gainful 
occupations, ten million—more than a 
third—were employed in agricultural 
pursuits. The produce of American 
agriculture in 1899, including farm 
animals and other products, aggregated 
nearly five billion dollars. The most 
valuable crop was Indian corn, $828,- 
000,000; then hay and forage, $484,- 
000,000; then cotton, $324,000,000 ; 
wheat returned $370,000,000, and oats 
$217,000,000. The animals sold and 
slaughtered during the year were val- 
ued at over $900,000,000, the products 
of the dairy gave $472,000,000, while 
poultry and eggs returned -over $281, - 
000,000. The concluding statement 
of the Secretary is that results in the 
work of the government for agricul- 
ture are justifying expenditures, and 
“the future will still further show the 
value of science applied to the farm.”’ 


EXTRACT FROM PRESIDENT ROOSE- 
VELT’S MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, 
DECEMBER, 1902 


In no department of governmental 
work in recent years has there been 
greater success than in that of giving 
scientific aid to the farming population, 
thereby showing them how most efh- 
ciently to help themselves. There is no 
need of insisting upon its importance, 
for the welfare of the farmer is funda- 
mentally necessary to the welfare of the 
Republic as a whole. In addition to 
such work as quarantine against animal 
and vegetable plagues, and warring 
against them when here introduced, 
much efficient help has been rendered 
to the farmer by the introduction of 
new plants specially fitted for cultiva- 
tion under the peculiar conditions exist- 
ing in different portions of the country. 
New cereals have been established in 
the semi-arid West. For instance, the 
practicability of producing the best 
types of macaroni wheats in regions of 


GrocraPHic Nores 


an annual rainfall of only ten inches or 
thereabouts has been conclusively dem- 
onstrated. ‘Through the introduction 
of new rices in Louisiana and Texas, 
the production of rice in this country 
has been made to about equal the home 
demand. Inthe southwest the possi- 


39 


bility of regrassing overstocked range 
lands has been demonstrated; in the 
north many new forage crops have been 
introduced, while in the east it has been 
shown that some of our choicest fruits 
can be stored and shipped in such a way 
as to find a profitable market abroad. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


IS GERMANY THE CAUSE OF DEN- 
MARK’S REFUSAL TO SELL HER 
WEST INDIAN POSSESSIONS ? 


(Clea has always wanted a 
naval station in the West Indies, 

but has been unable to obtain one on 

account of the Monroe Doctrine. 

Some years ago Denmark offered to 
sell the Danish West Indies to the 
United States, but the United States 
Congress did not accept. Recently an- 
other treaty was made and ratified by 
the United States Congress, but this 
time, for some unknown, mysterious 
reason, Denmark refused tosell. Why? 

It is well known that Germany has 
always wanted Denmark, and if by 
some peaceable means the kingdom of 
Denmark should become a State of the 
German Empire, the Danish West In- 
dies would not have changed sovereigns, 
but yet the German fleet could have 
its station there. 

Would the Monroe Doctrine interfere 
with this arrangement ? 


THE AMOUNT OF WATER HIDDEN 
BENEATH THE SURFACE 


HE amount of water within the 

crust of the earth, says Professor 
Charles S. Slichter, in a paper entitled 
“The Motion of Underground Waters,”’ 
recently published by the U. S. Geolog- 
ical Survey, is enormous, amounting 
to 565,000 million million cubic yards. 
This vast accumulation, if placed upon 
the earth, would cover its entire sur- 
face to a uniform depth of from 3,000 


to 3,500 feet. His estimate is based 
upon the supposition that the average 
depth which waters can penetrate be- 
neath the surface is six miles below the 
land and five miles below the ocean 
floor. 

Experiments have shown that not 
only sands and gravels are porous, but 
rocks supposed to be solid and com- 
pact may be traversed by water. Even 
so hard a rock as Montello granite, 
selected for the sarcophagus of the 
tomb of General Grant on account of 
its great strength, shows a porosity of 
0.23 per cent. The most productive 
water-bearing rocks are found to be the 
porous sandstones, and in some cases 
limestones whose inner texture has been 
chemically dissolved. 


‘The great mass of ground water slowly 
percolates through sand and gravel de- 
posits, sandstone, and other porous ma- 
terial under a wide extent of territory. 
Though its motion carries it but a frac- 
tion of a mile ina year, this ground 
water is so widespread and often so ac- 
cessible as to be of the greatest economic 
importance. 

The water supply in many sections 
of the United States depends on an un- 
derstanding of the water deep beneath 
the surface. Hence the study of un- 
derground water conditions is one of 
the most important works of the U.S. 
Geological Survey. It is carried on in 
arid regions, where water for irrigation 
is of the greatest value. In the middle 
west, where grazing and successful 


40 


farming largely depend on it, and in the 
east, where an unpolluted supply for 
domestic and municipal use is yearly 
becoming a more serious problem. 


LOUBAT PRIZES 


HROUGH the generosity of the 
Duke of Loubat, whose interest 
in American studies is well known, two 
prizes, to be called the Loubat Prizes, 
have been established at Columbia Uni- 
versity, to be awarded every five years 
for the best original works dealing with 
North America at any period preceding 
the Declaration of Independence. The 
value of the first prize is not less than 
one thousand dollars, and that of the 
second prize not less than four hundred 
dollars, and the competition is open to 
all persons, whether citizens of the 
United States or of any other country. 
These prizes are offered in the year 
1903, and the undersigned have been 
delegated to act as a Committee of 
Award. Original manuscripts, books, 
and pamphlets offered in competition 
may be sent to any member of the com- 
mittee prior to June, 1903. The con- 
ditions of the award are as follows: 

(a) That the work submitted shall 
treat of the history, geography, or nu- 
mismatics of North America prior to 
1776, or of some topic comprised within 
these general subjects. 

(6) That it shall embody the results 
of original research, be written by a 
single person, and be submitted by the 
author himself. 

(c) That it be written in the English 
language. 

(d) That if a printed work, it shall 
have been published for the first time 
not prior to 1898, and if in manuscript, 
the author shall agree to publish the 
work within one year from the date of 
the award. 

(e) That the committee is empowered 
to withhold one prize or both if no 
works, or but a single work, be deemed 
worthy of the award. 


Tue NarionaL GrocrapHic Macazine 


(7) That all works submitted shall 
be placed, after the award, in the library 
of Columbia University, and that five 
copies of the prize-winning works shall 
be presented to Columbia University for 
distribution according to the conditions 
prescribed in Mr. Loubat’s deed of gift. 

(g) It is furthermore requested that 
all copies printed subsequent to the 
award should bear upon the title-page 
the words: 


LouBAT PRIZE. 
Columbia University, in the City of 
New York. 


Competitors should address all com- 
munications to any of the undersigned: 

Professor William M. Sloane, Colum- 
bia University (chairman )—History. 

Dr Alexander Graham Bell, President 
National Geographic Society—Geog- 
raphy. 

Dr George N. Olcott, Lecturer on 
Roman Archeology, Columbia Univer- 
sity—Numismatics. 


SUBDUING THE NILE 


ECEMBER, 1902, marked the 
opening of the great Nile reser- 
voir and dam, which will increase by 
one-fourth the farming land of Egypt. 
Stated differently, Egypt before the 
reservoir was built had about 10,500 
square miles of arable land stretching 
along the Nile; the resevoir will give 
her 2,500 square miles more, so that 
this great work will add an area twice 
the size of Rhode Island to the farming 
land of the country. Chalmers Roberts 
in ‘‘ The World’s Work’”’ for December 
presents a capital article on this enor- 
mous engineering task so successfully 
achieved. The following paragraphs 
may be quoted: * 

“Tt is estimated that the permanent 
benefit resulting will reach $100,000, 000. 
There will be added to the revenue from 
the sale of water and from taxation on 


*The Worlds Work. Vol. 5, No. 2. Sub- 
duing the Nile. By Chalmers Roberts. 


GeocrRaPHic Nores 


the irrigated lands $10,000,000. ‘The 
government will further realize consid- 
‘erable sums from the sale of reclaimed 
public lands and indirect revenues trace- 
able to the country’s augmented pro- 
ducing capacity. Egypt is virtually 
rainless, but wherever the Nile water 
can be regularly supplied to the soil the 
most beautiful crops follow, which, like 
cotton and sugar, command high prices 
because of their excellence. With a 
reliable water supply, farming in Egypt 
can be pursued with practically certain 
success. Four or five hundredweight 
of long staple cotton per acre may be 
expected, which, owing to its excellence, 
easily sells for two cents a pound more 
than American cotton sells for, which 
in its turn does not average two hun- 
dredweight to the acre. Even with the 
general depression of sugar in the 
world’s markets Egyptian agriculture 
is confident of obtaining similar advan- 
tages for its cane product. 

“Tt is useless to tell most people that 
the reservoir at Assuan will contain 
I,000,000,000 tons of water. ‘This res- 
ervoir, according to Sir Benjamin Baker, 
will hold more than enough water to 
make one year’s full domestic supply to 
every city, town, and village in the 
United Kingdom, with its 42,000,000 
inhabitants. During the three or four 
summer months when the Nile is low, 
and the needs of cultivators are great- 
est, the flow from the reservoir will be 
equivalent to a river double the size of 
the Thames in mean annual flood con- 
dition. 

““ Here will be created in the heart of 
the African desert a lake having two or 
three times the superficial area of Lake 
“Geneva, in Switzerland, and throwing 
back water for a distance of 140 miles.”’ 


GOVERNMENT MAPS RECENTLY 
ISSUED 


NUMBER of topographic maps 
of portions of New York State 
have just left the press of the United 


41 


States Geological Survey and are avail- 
able to the public. ‘They are maps of 
the Phelps, Weedsport, Morrisville, and 
Waverly quadrangles, in the central 
portion of the State; the Canajoharie, 
Willsboro (Lake Champlain), and Oys- 
ter Bay quadrangles in eastern New 
York, and the Lockport and Niagara 
Falls and vicinity quadrangles in the 
western portion. 

The survey has also issued a new and 
accurate topographic map of portions of 
Sauk, Columbia; and Adams counties, 
Wisconsin, on either side of the Wis- 
consin River between Filbourn and 
Portage. ‘The map is known as that of 
the Briggsville quadrangle and is on a 
scale of about one inch to the mile. A 
map of portions of Marathon, Lincoln, 
and Langdale counties, in the center of 
the State, is now in press. 

The Geological Survey has also re- 
printed its topographic map of part of 
the Lake Michigan shore known as the 
Racine sheet, which includes the cities 
of Racine and Kenosha and about ten 
miles of the country to the west. It is 
on the same scale as that of the Briggs- 
ville quadrangle and forms an excep- 
tionally accurate map of the region. 


TESTING THE CURRENTS OF LAKE 
ERIE. 


HE past season 80 bottles have 
been set adrift in and near San- 
dusky Bay in order to learn about the 
currents. To attract attention, a small 
board, painted orange and black, was 
attached to each bottle, and inside a 
notice to the finder offering him a small 
reward to report place and time of find- 
ing; also a map of the bay and neigh- 
boring portion of Lake Erie, on which 
the finder could mark the spot. 

So far, 44 of the bottles have been 
heard from. When found within two 
or three days, as frequently occurred, 
the course the bottle had taken could 
generally be accounted for by examin- 
ing the wind record for the period it 


42 


was floating and a day or two before. 
Inside the bay the course of the bottle 
depends largely on whether water is en- 
tering or leaving the bay, and this de- 
pends mainly on the direction and 
velocity of the wind compared with the 
way it has been blowing for some hours 
or days before. 

The bottles displaced about 700 cubic 
centimeters and, except the first 26, 


GEOGRAPHIC 


The Uganda Protectorate. By Sir 
Harry Johnston. With 506 illustra- 
tions from drawings and photographs 
by the author, 48 full-page colored 
plates by the author, and 9 maps. 
Two vols. Pp. 1018. 8 x rOinches. 
New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 1902. 
$12.50 net. 

This is one of the most important 
works relating to Africa that has been 
published in recent years. The com- 
pletion of the Uganda Railway during 
the past year, opening this vast equa- 
torial province to direct communication 
with the world, makes the work spe- 
cially timely. Sir Harry Johnston de- 
scribes the tremendous work done by 
the British government toward pacify- 
ing and educating the Uganda peoples. 
The task is costing many millions of 
pounds sterling, but the commercial 
profits that will ensue will, in his opin- 
ion, far outbalance the expense. ‘The 
larger part of the two volumes is de- 
voted to a description of the varied 
races, the animals, and the plant life in 
the protectorate. An unusual feature 
are fifty colored plates from drawings 
by Sir Harry Johnston and over 500 
illustrations from photographs taken 
by him during his twenty months of 
exploration in Uganda. The following 
extract from the author’s preface gives 
a very good idea of the protectorate : 

“The territories which are comprised 


Tue Nationa, GerocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


were weighted with sand to make them 
sink beneath the board. In a few in- 
stances bottles one, three, and five feet 
beneath the surface were started simul- 
taneously. 

An account of these experiments will 
be published in the next annual report 
of the Ohio Academy of Science. 

EK. L. MosEerey. 

Sandusky, Ohio, December 15, 1902. 


LITE RAD URE 


within the limits of the Uganda Pro- 


tectorate during the time of my admin- 
istration of that portion of the British 
sphere in East Africa certainly contain 
within an area of some 150,000 square 
miles nearly all the wonders, most of 
the extremes, the most signal beauties, 
and some of the horrors of the Dark 
Continent. Portions of their surface 
are endowed with the healthiest climate 
to be found anywhere in tropical Africa; 
yet there are also some districts of ex- 
treme insalubrity. 


“The Uganda Protectorate offers to 
the naturalist the most remarkable 
known forms amongst the African 
mammals, birds, fish, butterflies, and 
earth-worms, one of which is as large 
as a snake and is colored a brilliant 
verditer-blue. In this protectorate there 
are forests of a tropical luxuriance only 
to be matched in parts of the Congo 
Free State and in the Cameroons. Prob- 
ably in no part of Africa are there such 
vast woods of conifers. “There are other 
districts as hideously desert and void of 
any form of vegetation as the worst part 
of the Sahara. There is the largest 
continuous area of marsh to be met 
with in any part of Africa, and perhaps 
the most considerable area of tableland 
and mountain rising continuously above 
6,000 feet. Here is probably reached 
the highest point on the whole of the 
African continent, namely, the loftiest 


GEOGRAPHIC 


snow peak of the Ruwenzori range. 
Here is the largest lake in Africa, which 
gives birth to the main branch of the 
longest river in that continent. There 
may be seen here perhaps the biggest 
extinct voleano in the world—Elgon. 
The protectorate, lying on either side 
of the equator, contains over a hundred 
square miles of perpetual snow and ice. 
It also contains a few spots in the rela- 
tively low-lying valley of the Nile, where 
the average daily heat is perhaps higher 
than in any other part of Africa. 

“Within the limits of this protector- 
ate are to be found specimens of nearly 
all of the most marked types of African 
man—Congo pigmies and the low, ape- 
like types of the Elgon and Semliki for- 
ests; the handsome Bahima, who are 
negroids as much related to the ancient 
Egyptians as to the average negro; the 
gigantic Turkana, the wiry, stunted 
Andorobo, the Apollo-like Masai, the 
naked Nile tribes, and the scrupulously 
clothed Baganda. ‘These last again are 
enthusiastic, casuistic Christians, while 
other tribes of the Nile province are 
fanatical Mohammedans. ‘The Bahima 
are, or were, ardent believers in witch- 
craft. The Basoga polytheists are bur- 
‘dened with a multiplicity of minor dei- 
ties, while the Masai and kindred races 
have practically no religion at all. 

“Cannibalism lingers in the western 
corners of the protectorate, while the 
natives of the other parts are importing 
tinned apricots or are printing and pub- 
lishing in their own language sumniaries 
of their past history. ‘This is the coun- 
try of the okapi, the whale-headed stork, 
the chimpanzee, and the five-horned gi- 
taffe, the rhinoceroses with the longest 
horns, and the elephants with the big- 
gest tusks.”’ 


Animals Before Man in America. By 
F. A. Lucas. Illustrated. Pp. 285. 
5 x 734 inches. New York: D. Ap- 
pleton & Co. 1902. $1.25 net. 


So little is generally known of the 


LITERATURE 4.3 


animals that ages ago lived on the 
American continent that this book by 
Mr Lucas will be very welcome, espe- 
cially as it is written in simple, untech- 
nical language. 


Europe. By Frank G.Carpenter. With 
maps and illustrations. Pp. 456. 
5% x7% inches. New York: Amer- 
ican Book Co. 1902. 7oc. 

This volume is one of Carpenter’s 
geographical readers for children. It 
is a simple, reliable, and interesting de- 
scription of the countries of Europe. 


A Ribbon of Iron. By Annette M. B. 
Meakin. Illustrated. Pp. 320. 5% 
x 8 inches. Westminster: Archibald 
Constable & Co. New York: E. P. 
Dutton & Co. 1902. $2 net. 


Miss Meakin describes the incidents 
and sights of a trip on the Siberian 
Railway in 1900, just before the Boxer 
troubles. 


The Land of the Amazons. Translated 
from the French of Baron de Santa- 
Anna Nery by George Humphery. 
With illustrations and map. Pp. 405. 
6xg inches. Jondon: Sands & Co. 
New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. 
I9Ol. 

The first edition of this standard work 
on Brazil appeared in 1884; a second 
edition followed in 1899. ‘The author 
gives a very complete account of the 
nature of the country, of the character 
and life of the inhabitants, native and 
foreign, and of the explorations of the 
Amazon. Mr Humphery has made 
such a free and smooth translation that 
the fact that the work is a translation 
does not appear. 


Strange Lands Near Home. Illustrated. 
Pp. 138. Boston: Ginn &Co. 1902. 
W.E. Curtis, H. Butterworth, Fred- 

erick Schwatka, and other entertaining 

authors contribute to this little volume 


4.4 


brief sketches of Mexico, the West In- 
dies, and South America. 
makes an attractive reader for young 
people. 


William H. Alexander, Observer of the 
U. S. Weather Bureau, is the author of 
a bulletin entitled ‘‘ Hurricanes, espe- 
cially those of Porto Rico and St Kitts,”’ 
recently published by the Bureau. The 
chapter headings are: Theories as to the 
Origin and Movements of RotaryStorms; 


The book. 


THe NationaAL GEoGRAPHIC MaGAZINE 


Premonitory Signs of the Existence and. 
Movement of a Hurricane; The Ap- 
proach and Passage of a West Indian 
Hurricane — Suggestions Relative to 
Preparations for the Storm; Barometers, 
Their Care and Their Use; The United 
States Weather Bureau in the West In- 
dies; Porto Rico and its Hurricanes; St 
Kitts and its Hurricanes; Brief Histor- 
ical Notes on West Indian Hurricanes, 
Earthquakes, etc. 


NATIONAI GEOGRAPHIC SOG ina 


November 21, 1902. Dr G. K. Gilbert, of 
the Board of Manogers, in the chair. Mr O. H. 
Tittmann gave an address on the ‘‘ Work of the 
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,’’ of which he 
is the honored Superintendent. The address is 
published in full in this number. At the con- 
clusion of the paper Dr Gilbert stated that the 
address was so complete that he doubted 
whether there were any points upon which 
questions could be asked. If members present, 
however, ,jhad any questions to present, they 
were welcome to do so. " 

There being no questions, Dr Gilbert said 
that he would like to ask how the valuable 
charts and maps published by the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey could be obtained by the pub- 
lic. Mr Tittmann replied that a certain num- 
ber of each edition were allotted to Congress- 
men and Senators for distribution among their 
constituents, and also a few copies were given 
to libraries. If a citizen was not able to obtain 
a map through his Congressman or Senator, he 
could purchase it from the Survey for a nomi- 
nal sum. 


November 14, 1902.—Vice-President W. J. 
McGee, LL.D, in the chair. Dr David T. 
Day, Chief of the Division of Mineral Resources 
of the U. S. Geological Survey, gave an illus- 
trated address on ‘‘ The Coal Resources of the 
United States.’’ 


November 22, 1902.—Dr G. K. Gilbert in the 
chair. Commander Robert E. Peary, U.S.N., 
gave an illustrated address on his ‘‘ Explora- 
tions in the Arctics, 1898-1102.”’ 


ANNOUNCEMENTS. 
REGULAR MEETINGS. 


January 2.—Annual meeting. Reports and 
elections. 


January 16.—‘‘ The Work of the Hydro- 
graphic Office, Navy Department.’? Com- 
mander W. H. Southerland. 

January 30.—‘‘ The Work of the Office of 
Experiment Stations, Agricultural Depart- 
mentee) DryAv Care: 

February 13.—‘‘The Work of the Census 
Office.”’” Hon. William R. Merriam. 

February 27.—‘‘ The Work of the Naval Ob- 
servatory.’’ Capt. Charles H. Davis. 

March 13.—‘‘The Work of the Geological 
Survey.’’ Hon. Charles D. Walcott. 

March 27.—‘‘The Work of the Library of 
Congress.’’ Hon. Herbert Putnam. 


POPULAR LECTURES 


January 9.—‘‘ The Turk and His Rebellious. 
Subjects.” Mr William E. Curtis. (Illus- 
trated. ) 

January 23 —‘‘ The Tragedy of Saint Pierre.’” 
Mr George Kennan. (Illustrated. ) 

February 6.—‘‘ From New York to London 
by Rail via Bering Strait... Mr Harry de 
Windt. 

February 20.—‘‘The Geographic Distribu- 
tion of Insanity in the United States.”’ Dr 
W. A. White, Director of the Binghampton 
State Hospital, New York. 


Provisional arrangements have also been 
made for lectures on Colombia and the Isth- 
mian Canal; America Before the Adyent of 
Man; Russia of Today (by Paul du Chaillu),. 
and a lecture by Mr John Muir. 


The Lenten Course of five lectures will be 
delivered in Columbia Theater, F street, near 
Twelfth, at 4.20 o’clock, on Wednesday after- 
noons of February 11, 18, 25, and March 4, 11. 

The subject of this course and the speakers 
assigned for the special topics will be an- 
nounced in a later program. 


MEMBERS 


OF THE 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY* 


(CORRECTED ‘tO DECEMBER I, 1902) 


ALABAMA 


JoHN, Sam’] Will. (Samuel Williamson), Room 3 20213 1 ave. 2725 
Highland ave., Birmingham 

Lang, James H. (James Henry), Ala. Polytechnic Inst. College st., 
Auburn 

McCatuey, Henry, University of Alabama 

Metz, P. H. (Patrick Hughes), Ala. Polytechnic Institute. Auburn 

Puiuuirs, J. H. (John Herbert), High School Bldg. 2251 7 ave., Bir- 
mingham 

Searcy, J. T. (James Thomas), Tuscaloosa 

SHACKELFORD, HE. M. (Hdward Madison), State Normal College. Troy 

Smit, Eugene A. (Eugene Allen), University of Alabama 

Wirson, M. C. (Marshall Clarke), 648 Poplar st., Florence 

Wrnan, W.S. (William Stokes), University of Alabama 


ARIZONA 


Braxn, Wm. P. (William Phipps), University of Arizona. Tucson 
Burns, Wm. G. (William Gunton), U.S. Weather Bur. Office. Phoenix 
CHANDLER, A. J. (Alexander John), Mesa 

Kernnepy, Harry M. (Harry M ). Phoenix 

Ors, T. W.(Theodore Weld), 129 Cortezst. 117 N. Pleasant st., Prescott 
Owen, Wm. O. (William O——), U.S. Ex. Surveys. Williams 


ARKANSAS 


Purpun, A. H. (Albert Homer), University of Arkansas. ‘Fayetteville 
Ricutsein, J. R. (Jacob Riley), 800 Louisiana st. 615 West 16 street, 
Little Rock 


*In May, 1902, by amendment to the by-laws of the Society, a class of Fellows 
was established. The election of Fellows is vested in the Board of Managers. No 
Fellows have yet been elected, nor will any elections be made before January 1, 
1903. 


ey MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ¢ 


CALIFORNIA 
ARCHIBALD, James F. J. (James F—— J——), 966 18 street, Oakland 
ARNOLD, Ralph, Stanford University. 427 Lytton ave., Palo Alto 
Bascock, EK. 8. (Elisha Spurr), Mer. Hotel del Coronado. Coronado 
Baker, Lucius, P. O. Drawer 2596, Fresno 
Beit, Aaron H. (Aaron Hayden), corner 3 and G. 128 F st., Kureka 


Bensamin, Edward H. (Edward Hewlett), 331 Pine st.,San Francisco. 
927 Filbert street, Oakland 

Berts, Rev. Joseph M. (Joseph M——,), Arcade Depot. Los Angeles 

Briaxer, Anson 8. (Anson Stiles), 6 California st.,San Francisco. 22351 
Piedmont avenue, Berkeley 

Brake, Mrs Charles T. (Harriet W——), 2235 Piedmont Way, Berkeley 

Be R, J. C. (John Casper), Stanford University 

Briper, Norman, 217 South Broadway, Los Angeles. 100 Grand avenue, 
Pasadena 

Carpenter, Ford A.(Ford Ashman), U. 8. Weather Bureau Office, 1326 
F street. 8655 2 street, San Digan 

CHAMBERLAIN, J. F. (James Franklin), State Normal Suhosl, Los Angeles. 
40 South Hudson avenue, Pasadena 

Comstock, Theodore B. (Theodore B 

Coucu, Capt. Thomas, Oroville 

CunnincHam, H. L. (Harry Louis), 819 Market St., San Francisco. 
Crellin Hotel, 10 and Washington streets, Oakland 

Davinson, George, 530 California st. 2221 Wash’n st., San Francisco 

Duptey, William R. (William Russel), Leland Stanford, Jr., University 

Karon, F. W. (Frederic Ward), 216 Bush st., San Francisco. Redwood 

Erskine, Alfred M. (Alfred M——), Orange Grove Boulevard, Pasadena 

Hsrrevya, T. H. d’ (Theophilus Hope d’), Calif. Inst. for Deaf., Berkeley 

Firzaerap, R. M. (R ), 313 14 street, Oakland 


), Los Angeles 


FoiiansBer, A. W. (Alonzo Walter), 202 Sansome street. 2426 Pine 
street, San Francisco 
Fosuay, James A. (James A——), 515 South Broadway. 2341 Scearff 


street, Los Angeles 
Giuuts, J. L. (James Louis), State Capitol Bldg.’ 12207 st., Sacramento 
Grirson, J. C. (Jewett Castello), 575 13 street, Oakland 
Grapy, Theodore, 2809 Kelsey street, Berkeley 
GrirFIin, Lieut. T. D. (T D—, Navy Yard, Mare Island 
Hamuin, Homer, Room 408 Byrne Block, 255 S. Broadway.-.1021S, 
Union avenue, Los Angeles 
HANDBURY, MAO H. (Thomas Henry), 809 Market st., San Francisco 
Harvey, F. H. (Frederic Hall), Galt 
Heanion, M. C. (Michael Charles), Room 12 McKie Building, 1023 5 St. 
NE. cor. 5 and D sts., San Diego. Brewster Hotel, cor. 4 and C sts. 


. 


CALIFORNIA 3 


Heap, D. P. (David Porter), 69 Flood Building, 809 Market street. 2410 
Steiner st., San Francisco 

Hincarp, H. W. (Hugene Woldemar), University of California. 2728 
Bancroft Way, Berkeley 

Hupparp, Samuel, 98 Montecito avenue, cor. Lee street, Oakland 

Hurcurinson, Lincoln, University of California. 2727 Bancroft Way, 
Berkeley 

Hype, F. A. (F A——),415 Montgomery street, San Francisco 

Jacoss, Joseph, General Offices S. P. Co., San Francisco 

Kemprr, Louis, vu. s. N., Hotel Metropole, Oakland 

Kennarp, W. J. (W—— J——), M. R. C. P., Ventura 

Kurr, Mark B. (Mark Brickell), Grass Valley 

Keyes, W.S. (Winfield Scott), NW. cor. Post and Stockton streets, San 
Francisco 

Kinney, Abbot, 256 8. Spring street (Stimson Block), Los Angeles. 428 
Ocean avenue, Santa Monica 

Knowtes, H. J. (A J ), 1167 Oak street, Oakland 

Lawson, Andrew C. (Andrew C——), University of California. 2461 
Warring street, Berkeley 

Linrencrantz, A. (Augustus), 359 Telegraph avenue, Oakland 

Loueurines, R. H. (Robert Hills), University of California. Berkeley 

McCurcuHeon, H. J. (H J ), San Francisco 

McKen, J. R. (James Robert), Bardsdale 

McKevert, C. H. (Charles Henry), Santa Paula 

McLauauuin, Frank, Santa Cruz 

Maxwe tt, George H. (George H——), Claus Spreckles Building, San 
Francisco 

Mitts, Mrs C. T. (Susan Lincoln), President Mills College, Mills College 

Mirern, H. G. (Henry George), Rancho Santa Clara del Norte, Ventura 

Morse, Fremont, Room 39 Appraiser’s Building, cor. Washington and 
Sansome streets. 1641 Bush street, San Francisco 

Murr, John, Martinez 

NrwearpEN, Geo. J. (George Joseph), u. s. a., Ft. Mason, San Francisco 

Newsom, J. F. (John Flesher), Stanford University 

Otps, W. J. (Wilbur Jason), 4183 8. Grand avenue, Los Angeles 

Parsons, Edward T. (Edward Taylor), 118 2 st. Occidental Hotel, 
cor. Montgomery and Sutter streets, San Francisco 

Pisrce, Harry, 728 Montgomery street. 712 Pine street, San Francisco 

Prerra, Leopoldo Schiappa, Ventura 

Porrreo, M. V. (Matthew Vincent), 819 Market street, San Francisco. 
2915 Van Buren avenue, Alameda 

Power, Geo. C. (George Coffin), 152 Main st. Kalorama st., Ventura 

Rernstein, J. B. (Jacob Bert), 217 Sansome street. 906 Ellis street, San 
Francisco 


4 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Reiter, Geo. C. (George Cook), U.S. F. S. “ Wisconsin,” San Francisco 

Riorpan, D. M. (Denis Matthew), 404 Bradbury Building. 822 South 
Alvarado street, Los Angeles 

Rirrer, Wm. BE. (William Emerson), University of California. 2434 
Durant avenue, Berkeley 

Rocxwet1, W. 1. (William Lincoln), 2129 17 street, Bakersfield 

Roperrs, Aug. F. (Augustus Frederick), Coast Survey Office. 2516 
Broadway, San Francisco 

Rust, Frank N. (Frank Nelson), 122 W. 3st. 137 N. Olivest., Los Angeles 

ScHuyieEr, Jas. D. (James Dix), 257 South Spring st. 419 West Wash- 
ington street, Los Angeles 

ScuwatKa, Mrs Ava J. B. (Ava J— B——), Los Angeles 

Smeppere, W. R. (William Renwick), 224 Sansome street. 1611 Larkin 
street, San Francisco 

Stanton, J. C. J Clark), C. E., Rio Vista 

Srepuens, F, (Frank), University and Fillmore avenue, San Diego 

Symmes, Frank J. (Frank Jameson), 725 Mission street. 630 Harrison 
street, San Francisco 

Tapor, H. F. (A F——), Sunnyside 

Van Linw, C. C. (Charles C——), President State Normal School, Chico 

Von per Ropp, Alfred, 121 Lake street, Oakland 

Vroman, A. C. (Adam Clark), 60 EK. Colorado st. 188 E. Colorado street, 
Pasadena 

West, Major Frank, 1714 Van Ness avenue, San Francisco 

Wirxinson, W. (Warring), Institution for Deaf and Blind, Berkeley 

Woon, H. P. (Henry Patton), 1519 D street. 1111 Cedar st., San Diego 


COLORADO 


Anperson, George G. (George Gray), 1255 Gayloro street, Denver 

Brrsecker, C. H. W. (Carl Herman Walter), 952 Downing ave., Denver 

Brrrnoup, Edward L. (Edward Louis), Washington ave. 1 st., Golden 

Brackmer, H. M. (H M—-), Geddings Building, Colorado Springs 

Boprisu, F. V. (Frederick Valentine), Doyle Block, 307 Victor avenue. 
319 S. 5 street, Victor 

Boynton, G. M. (G M——.), Coaldale. Hayden Creek 

Bryant, W. H. (William Henry), 621 EK. and C. Block, 17 and Curtis 
streets. 1107 Pearl street, Denver 

Buikiey, Frank, 407 and 408 Equitable Bldg. 901 Logan ave., Denver 

Buixkuey, Fred. G. (Frederick Groendycke), Equitable Building. 965 
Pennsylvania avenue, Denver 

CampBELL, Peter, Register United States Land Office, Akron 

CarHart, W.S. (W s ), Engineer of Mining, Coaldale 

Cuoarrr, Joseph K. (Joseph Kittredge), 814 Boston Building, cor. 17 and 
Champa streets. 1720 Sherman avenue, Denver 


COLORADO 5 


Coox, E. H. (Hzekiel Hanson), Ph. D., 818, 819, 820 Equitable Building, 
Denver. 2429 12 street, Boulder 

Craery, F. W. (Francis Whittemore), Colorado College. 1715 Wood 
avenue, Colorado Springs 

Curupert, L. M. (Lucius Montrose), Boston Building, cor. 17 and 
Champa streets. 1550 Logan avenue, Denver 

Fetiows, A. L. (Abraham Lincoln), Room 10 State Capitol Building. 
1159 Logan avenue, Denver 

Ferris, Cornelius, Jr., Rohling Block, Fort Collins 

Frnneman, Nevin M. (Nevin Melancthon), Univ. of Colorado, Boulder 

Harr, Edward L. (Hdward Lawrence), 409 Bennett avenue, National 
Annex Block, Rooms 5,6,and7. 140 W. Masonic ave., Cripple Creek 

Harpcastir, Thos. H. (Cfhomas Hughlett), Boston Building, 835 17 st. 
Charline place, 1429 Pennsylvania avenue, Denver 

Hits, Victor G. (Victor Gardiner), 879 Bennett avenue. 423 E. Carr 
avenue, Cripple Creek 

Hopkins, W. J.(W J ), Olney 

Jayne, W. A.(\Walter Addison), 416 McPhee Building. Denver Club. 
17 and Glenarm streets, Denver 

Kettry, Walter 8. (Walter S——), Leadville 

Korie, Frank M. (Frank M——), Box 641, Victor 

Lay, H. C. (A C ), Telluride 

Loyetanp, Francis W. (Francis William), 908-909 Equitable Building, 
17 and Stout streets. 1252 Corona street, Denver 

Lunpsrrom, John E. (John Emil). 11 Gazette Building. 3819 Cheyenne 
road, Loraine, Colorado Springs 

McReynorps, O. O. (Orval Omar), 709 Equitable Building, 775 17 street. 
1715 Vine street, Denver 

Manp, Walter, The Denver Club, Denver 

Mrcuersen, Henry, The Tremont, 416 16 street, Denver 

Mourron, A. B. (Arthur Billings). 709 Ernest & Cramner Building, cor. 
17 and Curtis streets. 1250 Logan avenue, Denver 

Preaco, Wm. (William), City Hall. 2007 Greenwood street, Pueblo 

Pearce, Harold V. (Harold V ), 1880 Gaylord st. west, Denver 

Prarce, Richard, Argo 

Preston, Porter J. (Porter J—), Las Animas 

Reep, H. W. (1 W—), Ouray 

Rocers, Henry T. (Henry Treat), Boston Building, cor. Champa and 
17 streets. 1739 East 13 avenue 

Rocers, Platt, McPhee Building, cor. 17 and Glenarm streets. 1524 
Washington avenue, Denver 

Snyper, Zachariah X, 928 9 street, Greeley 

Srapiteron, William, Editor Denver Republican, Denver 

Tears, Daniel W. (Daniel Wade), 614 Boston Building, 17 and Champa 
streets. 1200 Williams street, Denver, 


6 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Warp, Dr W.S. (W S—), 202 Boston Block, Denver 

West, Geo. H. (George Henry), 56 Railroad Building, 1515 Larimer st., 
Denver. 714 10 street, Greeley 

Wetmore, Edward D. (Edward Ditmars), Warren, Pa. Broadmoor, 
Colorado Springs 

Wiis, Frank G. (Frank G ), Cripple Creek 

Woops, F. M. (Frank Milo), Mining Exchange Building. 1806 N. Cas- 
cade avenue, Colorado Springs 

Woopson, Miss E. T. (EH T—.), 238 West 2 avenue, Denver 


CONNECTICUT 


Barroii, Com’dr Henry H. (Henry Harris), u.s. x., 9 Elm st., Norwalk 

Bartiert, Charles G. (Charles G——), Black Hall 

BrxiEr, James W. (James Wilson), Pastor Second Cong] Church. 5 
Broad street, New London 

Brewer, Wm. H. (William Henry), 4 Sheffield Hall, Grove and Pros- 
pect streets.. 418 Orange street, New Haven 

BrinsMabDk, William G. (William Gold), The Ridge, Washington 

Butter, Maj. J. Hartwell (John Hartwell), u.s. a., 276 Laurel street, 
Hartford 

CatHoun, John E. (John Edward), Cornwall 

ConicitEuGH, Mrs Kmma Shaw, Journalist and Lecturer, 238 Gano street, 
Providence, R. I. Thompson 

CorweEtL, Mrs Thomas L. (Thomas Lavender), 49 Seymour ave., Derby 

Dana, Edward 8. (Edward Salisbury), 4 Peabody Museum. 24 Hill- 
house avenue, New Haven 

Davis, Mrs Mary R. (Mary R. Gale), Training School, Clinton avenue: 
971 Fairfield avenue, Bridgeport 

Drank, Chas. W. (Charles Winslow), 938 Main street. 555 Noble avenue, 
Bridgeport 

Emmry, H. C. (Henry Crosby), 270 Crown street, New Haven 

Farnuam, W.S. (Wallace Strong), 1184-1138 Tremont Building, Boston, 
Mass. South Windsor 

Forp, Dr W. J. (William J——), Washington 

Gop, C. L. (Charles Lockwood), Cream Hill, West Cornwall 

Gorp, T. 8. (Theodore Sedgwick), Cream Hill, West Cornwall 

Graves, Henry 8. (Henry Solon), 360 Prospect street. 3837 Humphrey 
street, New Haven. 

Grecory, Herbert KE. (Herbert Ernest), Peabody Museum, Yale Univer- 
sity, High street. 399 Berkeley Hall, Yale University, New Haven 

Horcukiss, H. Stuart (Henry Stuart), Secretary L. Candee Rubber Co. 
55 Hillhouse avenue, New Haven 

Jupp, Edwin D. (Edwin Dale), 389 Allyn st. 58 Garden st., Hartford 


CONNECTICUT 7 


MacCurpy, George Grant, Room 9, Peabody Museum. 237 Church 
street, Hew Haven 

Perkins, J. Deming (J Deming), Litchfield 

Quincy, Miss Mary Perkins, 47 Hillhouse avenue, New Haven 

Rice, Wm. North (William North), Wesleyan University. 31 College 
place, Middletown 

Rogpinson, Chalfant (James Francis Chalfant), Yale University. 68 
Trumbull street, New Haven 

Sace, Jno. H. (John Hall), Portland 

Sauispury, Mrs Evelyn MacCurdy, 237 Church street, New Haven 

Sanrorp, Geo. B. (George Bliss), Litchfield 

StrorcKkeL. Carl, Norfolk 

SroucHton, Bradley, 102 Havemeyer Hall, Columbia University, 116 
street, New York. 339 Prospect street, New Haven 

Toumey, J. W. (James William), 360 Prospect street. 459 Prospect 
street, New Haven 

Tyier, Morris F. (Morris Franklin), Woodbridge Hall, Wall street. 
33 College street, New Haven 


DELAWARE 
Avis, Capt. E. $8. (Edward Spaw), u. s. A., Delaware College, Newark 


my r > . ® oC 
Leisen, Theodore A. (Theodore Alfred), 1621 Lovering avenue. 2204 
Gilpin avenue, Wilmington 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 


ABBE, Cleveland, Weather Bureau. 2017 I street 
Aspe, Cleveland, Jr. 2017 I street 
Apert, 8. T. (Silvanus Thayer). 725 18 street 
Acker, Wm. J. (William Jacob). The Iowa, 13 and O streets 
AckrrMan, A. A. (Albert Ammerman). Care of Navy Department 
Ackiey, S. M. (Seth Mitchell). 2002 R street 
Appison, Clare G. (Mrs Murray Addison). 1765 N street 
ADLER, Cyrus, Smithsonian Institution. 1706 S street 
Attes, Milton E. (Milton Everett). 1307 Clifton street 
ALEXANDER, T. H. (Thomson Hankey), 607 7 street. 1711 Q street 
Atvorp, Major Henry E. (Henry Elijah), Dept. of Agric. 900 B st. SW 
Ames, Alfred H. (Alfred Heno). 1760 Q street 
Anprews, Byron, 339 Pennsylvania avenue. 1473 Park street 
Anprews, Geo. L. (George L.). 2400 Columbia road 
AnpreEws, Mrs Jennie Parker. The Colonial Hotel 


APLIN, 8. A. (Stephen Arnold), Geol. Survey, 1330 Fst. 1917 I street 
AsPINWALL, J. A. (John Abel), St. Thomas P. E. Ch. 17 Dupont circle 


8 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Austin, O. P. (Oscar Phelps), 1333 F st. (Bu. of Stat.). 1620 Mass. ave 
AveRILL, F. L. (Frank Lloyd), Office Sup. Arch. 1479 Columbia road 
Ayres, H. B. (Horace Beemer). U.S. Geological Survey 
Ayres, Miss Susanne Caroline. 1813 13 street 


Bass, Cyrus C. (Cyrus Cates), Geol. Survey. 1118 Rhode Island ave 
Bacon, Samuel H., 404 7 street. 1326 Columbia road 
Batzey, Chas. B. (Charles Brooks), 911 F street. 1424 Staughton street 
Batiey, Mrs F. H. (Anna Bailey). 1815 Riggs place 
Batnry, Lt. Cmdr. F. H. (Frank Harvey), Bu. Steam Eng. 1815 Riggs pl 
Battery, Vernon, Department of Agriculture. 1854 Kalorama avenue 
Bairp, Cmdr. G. W. (George Washington), Navy Dept. 1505 R. I. ave 
Bairp, James W. (James Wooster), War Dept. 734 Flintst., Brightwood 


Baker, Frank, National Zoological Park. 1728 Columbia road 
Baker, Marcus, 1439 K street -- 1905 16 street 
Bautpwin, David H. (David Henry), Geol. Survey. 1000 24 street 


Baupwiy, M. W. (Marcus Wickliffe), Bu. Eng. and Pr. 3000 13 street 
Baupwin, 8. Torrey (Stephen Torrey), Navy Department. 925 S street 
Batpwin, Wm. D. (William Dickson), 25 Grant place. 1734 Q street 
Bauuinasr, M. F. or Minnie F. (Minnie Fazio). The Riggs House 
Battocu, G. W. (George Williamson), 1006 F st. 2445 Brightwood ave 
Barser, A. W. (Amherst Willoughby), G. L. Off. 703 Hast Capitol st 


Barnarb, E. C. (Edward Chester), Geol. Survey. 1807 G street — 
Barnarp, Job, U.S. Court-House. 1306 Rhode Island avenue 
Barnum, Miss Charlotte C. (Charlotte C——). Coast Survey 
Barrineton, Wm. L. (William Leadbeater). 3014 N street 
Barrier, Lt. Cmdr. Charles W., vu. s. n. Navy Department 
Bartiett, Miss Harriet. 122 East Capitol street 
Barter, John R. (John Russell), Navy Department. 1622 21 street 
Barton, L. Leland (Leslie Leland), 604 H street 


Bassprt, Frank H. (Frank Howard), War Department. 2209 13 street 
Barren, R. Grosvenor (Robert Grosvenor), 1317 F street. 501 13 street 
Baurr, L. A. (Louis Agricola), Coast and Geod. Survey. 1925 I street 


Baytor, J. B. (James Bowen). Coast and Geodetic Survey 
Braman, George H. (George Herbert). 2232 Massachusetts avenue 
Beaman, W. M. (William Major), Geol. Survey. The Maury, 19 & G sts 
Bess, H. C. (Edward Crosby), Geol. Survey. 1227 11 street 
Becx, William H. (William Henry), 1424 N. Y. ave. The Bancroft 
Becker, Edmund, Light-House Board. 1815 Yale street 
Bett, Aileen A. (Aileen Adine). 1521 35 street 
Bett, Alexander Graham. 1331 Connecticut avenue 
Bei, A. Melville (Alexander Melville). 1525 35 street 
Bett, Charles J., 1405 G street. 1327 Connecticut avenue 


BELL, Bvt. Brig. Gen. Geo. (George). 1909 G street 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 9 


Breve, H. Oliver, M. D. (Edward Oliver), The Farragut. 922 17 street 
Benxert, M. V. (Melitta Viola), P. O. Dept., Room 222. 2010 35 street 


Benner, Frank VY. (Frank Vincent). The Arlington 
Bennett, Walter J. (Walter James), 24 and M sts. 1248 Princeton st 
Brnson, Berry (Berry Greenwood). 341 Trumbull street 
Beremann, H. H. (Henry Hermann), 5117 street. 1444 Bacon street 
. Bernavov, Lieut. J. B. Navy Department 
Berry, James, Weather Bureau. 14 3 street SE 
Bickrorp, Capt. Nathan, 914 F street. 32 Quincy street 
Bren, Morris, General Land Office. Takoma Park, D. C 
BicEiow, Frank H. (Frank Hagar), Weather Bureau. 1625 Mass. ave 
Biceiow, Otis, Avenel, Md. 1501 18 street 


Bincuam, Judge EK. F. (Edward Franklin), Court-House. 1907 H street 
Bincuam, D. J. (David Judson), vu. s. A., retired. 


Bisserr, Peter. “Twin Oaks,” Woodley lane 
Buacxk, H. Campbell (Henry Campbell). 2516 14 street 
Bratir, H. B. (Herbert Buxton), Geol. Survey. 3025 16 street 
Buatr, John 8. (John Sylvanus), 1416 F street. 1820 I street 


Bioop, Ellen E. (Ellen Elizabeth), P.O. Dept. 516 East Capitol street 
Biount, Henry F. (Henry Fitch), 1405 G st. The Oaks, 3101 31 street 
Biowers, Miss Etta (Miss Hosetta), Census Office. 602 M street SE 


BoarpMan, Wm. J. (William Jarvis). 1801 P street 
Boarman, Mrs. L. M. (1. M ye 1104 Maryland avenue SW 
Bonp, Mary E. (Mary Eachus), Blake School. 818 New Jersey avenue 
Bonp, 5. R. (Samuel Robert), 321 4% street. 13 Iowa circle 
Borrrneav, John B. (John Baptiste). 315 A street NE 
BourGeat, Mrs B. kK. (Bella Kilbourn), Lib. of Cong. 1629 R street 
Boutpin, E. D. (Ellie Daniel), General Land Office. 1211 13 street 
Bourquin, Katharine, P. O. Department. 2118 Wyoming avenue 
Boycr, Lizzie F. (Klizabeth Ficklen). The Grafton 
BraprorD, R. B. (Royal Bird), Navy Department. 1522 P street 
Bravery, Geo. L. (George Lothrop). 1503 21 street 
Brapiey, Mrs Laura A. (Laura Ann). 936 I street 
Brewer, Clara G. (Clara Gertrude). The Stratford, Mt. Pleasant 
BrickenstEINn, J. H. (John Henry), Patent Office. 1603 19 street 
Bricut, Rich’d R. (Richard Riggs), Navy Dept. 218 Maryland ave. NE 
Brisrou, Rey. Dr. Frank M. 330 C street 


Brirron, Alex. (Alexander), Glover Bldg., 1419 F street. 18365 street 
Bropir, Basil M. (Basil M——), Treasury Dept. 1330 New York ave 
Brooxs, Alfred H. (Alfred Hulse), Geol. Survey. 1820 Wallach place 
Brooks, N. M. (Newton May), P. O. Department. 224 A street SH 
Brown, Miss Rachel C. (Rachel Cuthbert), Bu. Ind. Aff. 1008 N st 
Brown, Geo. H. (George Hay), Off. Pub. Bdgs.& Gds. 1357 Roanoke st 
Brown, Geo. W. (George Whitfield), 1406 G st. 1710 Connecticut ave 


10 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Brown, L. K. (Lewis Kirk), Treasury Department. 134 C street SE 
Brown, L. 8. (Lorenzo Starr). 705 15 street 
Browne, Aldis B. (Aldis Birdsey), 1419 F street. 1528 P street 
Browne, Alice Key. The Portland 
Brumpaueu, G. M., M. D. (Gaius Marcus). 905 Massachusetts avenue 
Bucx, Miss Ada P. (Ada Pamelia). 635 Maryland avenue NE 


Burt, H. L. (Herbert Luther), Off. Chief of Engineers. 1701 V street 
BuLktry, Barry, Bond building, 14and N. Y.ave. Barton’s, 15 st near H 
Bumpureey, M. H. (Marvin H ), care J. C. Burrows, U.S. Senate 
Bumsreap, Albert H. (Albert Hoit), Geol. Survey. 734 12 street 
Bunker, William Mitchell, Room 19, 1417 G street. Hotel Normandie 
Burcue t, N. L. (Norval Landon), 1325 F street. 1102 Vermont avenue 


Burpert, 8. 8. (Samuel Swinfin), 925 F St. Glencarlyn, Va 
Burperr, Walter W., 1307 F street. 1026 Vermont avenue 
Bureuss, C. H. (Charles Hyde), 1341 8 street. 1333 8 street 
Burr, W. H. (William Henry). 1539 14 street 
Burt, G. Rodney. 218 C street 
Burier, W. H. (William Henry), 609 C street. 200 8 street SW 
Bynum, Maud. 1742 Q street 


Byrnes, Eugene A, (Eugene Alexander), Patent Office. 2539 18 street 


CaLEr, Samuel Prescott, War Department. 1828 H street 
CALLAHAN, John, Wash. & Norf. Str. whf., foot 7 street. 2817 14 street 
CaLvert, Edgar B. (Edgar Bassett), Weather Bureau. The Landmore 
Catvo, J. B. (Joaquin Bernardo), Costa Rican Legation. 21115 street 


CAMPBELL, Miss Anna. 924 D street SW 
CaMPBELL, William 8. (William Shaw). 1841 R street 
Capps, Naval Constructor W. L. Navy Department 


Careton, M. A. (Mark Alfred), Dept. of Agric. 1715 Lincoln ave. NE 
Carmopy, John D. (John Doyle), 314 9 street. 1211 Vermont avenue 


Carpenter, Frank G. (Frank George). 1318 Vermont avenue 
Carr, Wilbur J. (Wilbur John), Department of State. The Gladstone 
Carr, W. K. (William Kearny), 1008 F street. 1415 K street 
Carrot, Mitchell (Alexander Mitchell), Columbian Univ. ‘The Cairo 
Carter, W. F., Treasury Department. 1320 Emerson street 
Carver, Frank N. (Frank Noble), 1416 F street. 1431 L street 
CatiLin, Capt. Robert. 1428 Euclid place 
CHAMBERLAIN, Miss Jane E. 3 Grant place 
CHaAmBeErs, Lieut. E. B. (Emmet Butler). 6 1 street NE 
CHANDLER, G. V. (George Vose), Patent Office. 213 C street SE 


Cuapman, R. H. (Robert Hollister), Geol. Survey. 2055 Florida avenue 
Cuerry, Chas. H. (Charles Henry), Winder Building. 1115 S street 
Curster, Major James, v. s. A., retired. 601 21 street 
CueEsrEr, Josephine M. (Miss Josephine M.). 1016 11 street 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA i 


Curckerina, J. W. (John White). . The Portner 
Curtron, Robt. 8. (Robert S. ), State Dept. 225 Delaware avenue NE 
Cuuss, Mrs C. F. (Caroline F——). 1721 Corcoran street 
CiaFtLtn, Price Colby, 907 F street. 1117 O street 
Ciacerr, Chas. W. (Charles William), 422 5 street. 803 A street SE 
Crapp, J. M. (John Martin). 1024 Vermont avenue 
Crark, Charles 8. (Charles Shedd), Dennison School. The Manhattan 
CrarKk, Egbert A., D. D. 8. (Egbert Asahel). 600 13 street 
Ciarkr, S. A. (Samuel Asahel), Law Librarian. General Land Office 
Cray, Gen. Cecil, Department of Justice. 4 1513 S street 
Creaver, F. M. (Frank M.), Weather Bureau. 2311 M street 
Corr, T. L. (Theodore Lee), 18 Corcoran Bldg. 1615 Florida avenue 
Concer, Miss Florence W. (Florence West), Station C. 1141 N. H. ave 
Coo.iper, L. A. (Louis Arthur), 1403 F street. 1423 Welling place 
Corra, Luis F. (Luis Felipe). 1704 Q street 
CornisH, Major G. G. (G G ). 225 1 street SH 
Corson, Geo. E. (George Edgar), War Department. 1154 17 street 
Corton, John B. (John B ))s Sun building 
CoviLun, Frederick V.(Frederick Vernon), Dept. Agr. 1836 Californiaave 
Cowsrtt, Arthur, Wyatt building, 1403 F street. 634 I street NE 
Cox, W. P. (William Porter), 532 17 street. 315 Florida avenue 
Cox, W. V. (William Van Zandt), 2d Nat. Bk. Emery pl., Brightwood 
Coyte, B. J. (Bernard J e 834 13 street 
Crane, Augustus, Jr., 604 14 street. 1344 F street 
Crew, J. H. (James Hart), Room 510, P. O. Dept. 1532 9 street 
Cripter, Hon. Thos. W. (Thomas Wilbur). 

Crossy, Oscar T. (Oscar Terry), Atlantic Building. Cleveland Park . 
Cross, Whitman (Charles Whitman), Geol. Survey. 2138 Bancroft pl 
Crowe.t, Mrs Anna 8. (Anna Silliman). 938 I street 
CuLBertson, Mrs Anna G. 32 Grant place 
Cummines, H. 8. (Horace Stuart), Kelloge Building. 1756 K street 
Curry, J. L. M. (Jabez Lamar Monroe). 1736 M street 
Curry, W. W. (William Wallace), Pension Building. 1510 9 street 


Curtis, Henry A. (Henry Adams), Winder Building. Takoma Park 
Curtis, William E. (William Eleroy), Post Bldg. 1801 Connecticut ave 


CusHtna, 5. C. (Sallie Corwin). 320 Indiana avenue 
Custis, Geo. W. N. (George Washington Neale). 110 East Capitol street 
Custis, J. B. Gregg (James Bayard Gregg). 912 15 street 


Dati, Wm. H. (William Healey), Smithsonian Institution. 1119 12 street 
Darton, N. H. (Nelson Horatio), Geol. Survey. 

Daveuerty, Rev. Jerome, S.J., Georgetown College. Georgetown Univ: 
Davenport, J. L. (James La Roy), Bureau of Pensions. 2501 14 street 
Davis, Arthur P. (Arthur Powell), 1330 F street. 2212 1 street 


12 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Davis, Mrs Jennie T. (Jennie Taylor), Geol. Sur. 3323 Holmead ave 
Dawes, Charles G. (Hon. Charles Gates) 
Dawson, Thos. F. (Thonias Fulton), Star Building. 2572 University pl 


Day, David T. (David Talbot), Geol. Survey. 1302 R street 
Dr Catnpry, Wm. A. (William Augustin), War Dept. 914 Farragut sq 
De Menrirr, J. H. (John Henry). 1335 Vermont avenue 
DrrweiLrr, F. M. (Frederick May), 420-422 11 street. --504 I street 
Devine, John T. (John T—). The Shoreham, 15 and H streets 
Devereux, Mrs M. (Maria). 3016 Dumbarton avenue 
Devirr, G. R. (G— R »s 7 and D streets 
Dewey, George. 1747 Rhode Island avenue 
Dewey, Lyster H. (Lyster Hoxie), Dept. of Agric. 1837 Wallach pl 
Dicxins, Capt. F. W. (Francis William), vu. s. N. 1334 19 street 
Dickson, Med. Insp. 8. H. Samuel Henry), u.s. n., Marine Bar.. 732 21 st 
Dinter, J. S. (Joseph Silas), Geol. Survey. 1454 Staughton street 
Donen, Arthur J. (Arthur J ), 1403 F street. Hotel Stratford 
DorrMAnnN, Rev. J. E. A. (Rev. John E—— A——). 927 Westminster st 
Donn, Edw. W. (Edward William), 913 G street. 1708 16 street 
Dorre.ue, Ed. (Edward), 721 14 street. 928 I street 
Dovatass, Mrs Helen. Cedar Hill, Anacostia 
Downtne, Mrs Mary. 1006 11 street 


Doy tr, John T, eae Thomas), Civil Service Com. 2104 Wyoming ave 
Du Bors, Chas. L. (Charles Lamartine), Gen. Land Off. 1421 Chapin st 
Durrretp, Will Ward, Coast Survey. 1631 Q street 
Dumont, Jas. A. (James Allen), Treasury Dew 2009 Kalorama ave 
Duncan, D. Wallace (David Wallace), Off. Aud. P.O. Dept. 1155 st. NE 
DUMGANED, Chas. C. (Charles Coltman), 317-319 9 street. 1300 17 st 


Duron, Maj. Clarence Edward. War Department 
Dyr, P. E. (Peleg Edwin), 514 11 street. 1403 L street 
Dynr, Miss Nellie C. (Ellen Cooper). 1702 9 street 
EKasrsriine, H. V. (Horace Virgil), War Department. 1541 9 street 
Epson, Jno. Joy (John Joy), 900 F street. 1324 16 street 
Epwarps, Thos., Jr., 225 Pa. ave. SE. 18 North Carolina ave. SE 
EimBecx, William, Coast Survey. 1106 New York avenue 
Expriver, G. H. (George Homans), Geol. Survey. Chevy Chase, Md 
Emmons, 8. F. (Samuel Franklin), 1830 F street. 1721 H street 
Enocus, Mrs Annie H. 

Erpacu, John, Geol. Survey. 122 3 street SE 
Esrasproox, Leon M. (Leon M ). 1026 17 street 
Evermann, Barton W. (Barton Warren), Fish Commission. 412 T street 
Ezporg, Richard (Count Richard von). 918 N street 


Farrrietp, W. B. (Walter Browne), Coast Survey. 1717 DeSales street 
Fatriny, Frances 8. (Frances Sarah). Ridge road Hast 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 13 


Farasepr, L. T. (Louis T.), Bureau of Pensions. 313 Hast Capitol street 


Farquuar, Henry, Census Office. 1615 Florida avenue 
Frounkr, Charles M. (Charles Mather). 2013 Massachusetts avenue 
Fisker, Rey. A. S. (Asa Severance). 1340 Q street 
Fiscuer, E. G. (Ernst Georg), Coast Survey. 436 New York avenue 
Fisuer, Robert J. (Robert Strettle Jones), 614 F st. 1915 Kalorama ave 
Frren, C. H. (Charles Hall), Geol. Survey. 3062 Q street 
Frren, Henry W. (Henry Winslow). 1518 Connecticut avenue 
Freea, James E. (James Edwin), 1406 G st. 1747 Rhode Island ave 
Fiercuer, Miss A. C. (Alice Cunningham). 214 1 street SH 
Frrrcuer, L. C. (Louis Cass), Geol. Survey. Chapin flats, 1415 Chapin st 
Friercumr, Robert, M. D., Medical Museum. The Portland 
Frinr, Weston, Public Library. The Westover, 16 and U streets 
Frynn, H. F. (Harry Franklin), Coast Survey. 31 B street SE 
Foor, Morris J. (Morris Julius), War Department. 1729 HL street 
Forney, Edward O. (Edward Otis), Patent Office. 514 FE street 
Forwoop, Gen. W. H. (W H—.). 1425 Euclid place 
Fosrer, Miss E. B. (Ellen Burroughs). 1402 Binney street 
Forsyrn, Geo. A. (George Alexander). 1509 Rhode Island avenue 
Foster, John W. (John Watson). 1525 18 street 


Fowrrr, Edwin H. (Edwin Horatio), Coast Survey. 1126 East Cap. st 
Fratrey, L. A. (Leonard August), Navy Pay Office. The Gloucester 
PRANKENFIELD, H. C. (Harry Crawford), Weather Bu. The Buckingham 
Frencu, Geo. N. (George Norris), Treasury Department. 1884 I street 
Frencu, Owen B., Coast Survey 2212 F street 
Frispy, Prof. Edgar. 1607 31 street 
Funnier, Chf. Jus. M. W. (Melville Weston), Supreme Court. 1801 F st 
Futon, H. K. (Horace Kimball), 314 9 street. 1211 Vermont avenue 


Gaar, N. P. (Nathaniel Parker), Seaton School. 1126 5 street 
Gan, Thos. M. (Thomas Monroe), 1414 F street. 1314 L street 
Gauaupet, EH. M. (Edward Miner), Gallaudet College. 1 Kendall Green 
Gannett, Henry, U.S. Geol. Survey. 1881 3 street 


Gannett, S.S. (Samuel Stinson), Geol. Survey. 2556 University place 
GarnterR, Madeleine A.(Madeleine Adelaide), P.O. Dept. 1829 Oregonave 
Garriott, E. B. (Edward Bennett), Weather Bureau. 1248 Princeton st 
Garrison, Miss Carl L..(Carl Louise), Phelps School. 1300 Lydecker ave 
Gares, Merrill E. (Merrill Edwards), 1429 N. Y. ave. 1315 N. H. ave 
Garscunr, Albert S. (Albert Samuel), Bureau Ethnology. 2020 15 street 
Grsson, George, 15th street and Pennsylvania avenue. 1434 R. I. avenue 


GiiBert, Mrs C. E. (C—— Evelyn). 1455 Missouri avenue 
Giipert, G. K. (Grove Karl), Geol. Survey. 1919 16 street 
GiLiamM, Frank, Weather Bureau. Cleveland Park, D. C, 


Gitert,. Alfred 8. (Alfred Silas), Philadelphia. 1614 20 street 


14 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


GiLMAN, Daniel C. (Daniel Coit), 1439 K street. 614 Park avenue, Balto 
Grover, C. C. (Charles Carroll), Riggs National Bank. 20 Lafayette sq 
Guover, John J., Department of Justice. 1505 R street 
Goprrey, E. D. (Eliasaph Dayid), Pension Office. 942 Westminster st 
GoLtpMAN, H. A. (Edward Alphonso), Department of Agriculture. 

Goong, Rich’d U. (Richard Urquhart), Geol. Survey. Lanier Heights 


GoruHAM, Geo. C. (George Congdon), Bond Building. 1763 Q street 
Grauam, Andrew B. (Andrew Butler), 1230 Pa. ave. 1407 16 street 
Grauam, Agnes M. (Agnes Montgomery). 17382 Connecticut avenue 
GraHam, Mrs J. A. (J. A ). 2000 H. street 
Granpprey, Maj. Clement de. 1918 H street 
Grant, Alex. (Alexander), P. O. Department. 1347 L street 
Graves, Edward. 927 Massachusetts avenue 
Greety, A. W. (Adolphus W.), War Department. 1914 G street 
GREEN, Bernard R. (Bernard Richardson), Lib. of Cong. 1738 N street 
Green, Darius A. (Darius Alonzo), Navy Department. 1123 17 street 
GREENE, Dr Edw. L. (Edward Lee), Catholic University. Brookland 
GREENE, Samuel H. (Samuel Harrison). 1320 Q street 
GreeENnkE, Mrs Wallace (Josie Craig). 904 S street 
Griswotp, H. A. (Henry Adams). Maple avenue, Anacostia 


Grosvenor, Gilbert H. (Gilbert Hovey), Corcoran Bldg. 1328 18 street 


Hackney, Fielder Poston, 2806 Pa. ave. 2602 Pennsylvania avenue 
Haener, A. B. (Alexander Burton), Court-House. 1818 H street 
Hagur, Arnold, Geol. Survey. 1724 I street 
Hatt, C. L. or Cyrus L. (Cyrus Lyman). 1554 Yale street 
Hat, Sam’! K. (Samuel Kellogg), Govt. Printing Office. 421 H street 
Hatt, W. L. Bureau of Forestry 
Hamittron, Dr William, Bureau of Education. 1023 Vermont avenue 
Hamtuin, Teunis S. (Tennis Slingerland). 1806 Connecticut avenue 
Hansen, John (J. A. H. John). 704 7 street 
Harprine, Miss Gena R. (Gena Russell). The Shoreham 


Harpwick, 8. H., Southern Railway Co. 1315 New Hampshire avenue 
Haran, Justice John M. (John Marshall), Sup. Court. 1401 Euclid pl 
Harris, W. T. (William Torrey), Bureau of Education. 13803 P street 


Harrison, Miss Carrie. 1322 14 street 
Hart, A. (Abraham), 420 7 street. ' 2005 Kalorama avenue 
Hart, Amos W. (Amos Winfield), 625 F street. 717 10 street 
Harvey, Lt. Col. Philip F., Dep. Surg. Gen., u.s.a. Surg. Gen. Office 
Haven, Henry L. (Henry Langdon), 623 F street. 2005 I street 


Haw tery, John M. (John Mitchell), Navy Department. 1514 R street 
Hay, E. B. (Edwin Barrett), 1425 N. Y. avenue. 1512 Corcoran street 
Hay, John, State Department. 800 16 street 
Hay, W. P. (William Perry). 311 F street 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 15 


’ Haypen, Lieut. Everett. Navy Department 
Hayes, C. Willard (Charles Willard). Geological Survey 
Hazarp, Daniel L. (Daniel Lyman), Coast Survey. 1445 Mass. avenue 
Hazverr, Isaac. The Hamilton, 14 and K streets 
Heap, J. F. (John Frazier). 2015 R street 
Hearp, Hon. A. (Augustine). 921 18 street 
Hearst, Mrs Phebe A. (Phebe Apperson). 1400 N. H. avenue 
Heaton, A. G. (Augustus George). 1618 17 street 
Heprick, Henry B. (Henry Benjamin), Naval Obser’y. 2301 32 street 
Heerr, Col. A. (Anthony). 2026 Hillyer place 
Hetrterin, Giles F. (Giles Fabian), 1203 F street. 926 B street SW 
Henperson, C. W. (Charles W ), 507 12 street. The Chapin 
Henperson, Julia (Julia Doty), Indian Office. * 1826 G street 


Henperson, John B., Jr. (John Brooks), 1416 F st. 1601 Florida ave 
Henperson, Miss N. (N ). Address unknown. 
Henpers, M. (Matthew), General Land Office. The Garfield, 901 13 st 


Hennic, Frederick, Washington Barracks. 1831 5 street 
Henry, A. J. (Alfred Judson), Weather Bureau. 1322 Columbia road 
Henry, E. 8. (Edwin Stanton), Patent Office. 1320 Columbia road 
Hersert, Hon. H. A. (Hilery Abner), 1419 G street. 1612 21 street 
Herron, Joseph 8. (Joseph Sutherland), War Department. The Donald 
Herron, Wm. H. (William Harrison), Geol. Survey. 1508 Q street 
Heuvercn, Christian, 26 and Water streets. 1307 New Hampshire ave 
Hickey, Susanna G. (Susanna Goode), Harrison School. 1202 Q street 
Hicks, Frederick C. (Frederick C——). Library of Congress 
Hirston, Mrs Walter. The Concord 
Hicernson, Rear Admiral F. J. Treasury Department 
Hi, E. J. (Ebenezer J ), House Reps. The Cochran. Norwalk, Conn 
Hint, David J. (David Jayne), Department of State. 1313 K street 
HinpmarsH, W. B. (Walter B.), Light-House Board. 823 Hast Cap. st 
Histor, Dr William, 1400 H street. 1404 L street 
Hircucock, A. 8. (Albert Spear), Dept. of Agric. 80 R street 
Hrrz, John, Volta Bureau. 1709 35 street 
Hopces, J. W. (John Walter). 201 2 street SE 
Hopexins, W. C. (William Chandler), Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

HorcersBercer, Mrs Nora, Central High School. 924 Massachusetts ave 
Horsroox, Theodore Lewis, 1420 New York avenue. Cleveland park 


Hotpen, Henry P. (Henry Prichard), Bureau of Pensions. 1211 I street 
Houuicer, Frank 8S. (Frank Samuel), War Department. 1112 N. Y.ave 
Ho.tmeap, Alfred H. (Alfred H ), Interstate Com. Com. The Iowa 
Homes, W. H. (William Henry), National Museum. 1444 Staughton st 
Hox, H. P. R. (Henry Peter Renouf), Treasury Dept. Takoma Park 
Hopkins, Archibald, Court of Claims. 1826 Massachusetts avenue 
Hopkins, James H. (James Herron). 1324 18 street 


16 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Hopxins, Martha G., Bureau Engraving and Printing. 2034 G street 
Hornsiower, Jos. C. (Joseph Coerten), 1509 H street. 1402 M street 
Hosier, F. M. (Francis Marion), Bu. of Nay., Navy Dept. 12045 street 
Hoven, Franklin H. (Franklin Horatio), Atlantic Bldg. 1815 T street 


Houeu, Helen M. (Helen Maria), 1330 F street. 332 Indiana avenue 
Hovey-Kine, Alvin, Bureau of Statistics. 1732 21 street 
Howarp, A. L. (Arcturus Lee). 124 5 street 
Howarp, L. O. (Leland O.), Department of Agriculture. 1336 30 street 
Howe tt, Edwin E. (Edwin Eugene), 612 17 street. 20382 G street 
Hoyt, Henry M. (Henry Martyn), Dept. of Justice. 1516 K street 
Hupparp, Mrs Gardiner Greene. “Twin Oaks.” Woodley lane 
Hurcuins, Stilson. 1603 Massachusetts avenue 
Hume, Frank, 454 Pennsylvania avenue. 1235 Massachusetts avenue 
Hurcneson, David, Library of Congress. 401 B street NE 


Hurcuison, Miss Jessie EH. (Jessie Elizabeth), P.O. Dept. 305 D street 
Huxrorp, Maj. W. P. (William Pitkin), Atlantic Bldg. 1806 H street 
Hypr, Miss E. R. (Eliza Reed), Off. Comp. Cur., Treas. Dept. 1326 I st 
Hype, John, Department of Agriculture. Lanier Heights 
Hynson, Laurence M. (Laurence Maxwell), Corcoran Bldg. 6238. C. ave 


Ipr, George R. (George Russell), Patent Office. 801 A street SE 
Jackson, Sheldon, Bureau of Education. The Concord, 1701 Oregon ave 
James, Mrs Sarah S. (Sarah Stubbs). 1517 O street 
Janson, Ernest N., Navy Department. 802 Rhode Island avenue 
JEWELL, Claudius B. 1324 Vermont avenue 


Jounson, A. B. (Arnold Burges), Treasury Department. 

Jounson, Arthur EH. (Arthur Edward), War Dept. 1833 Vermont ave 
Jounson, Enoch G. (Hnoch George), House of Reps. 1827 Corcoran st 
Jounson, Frank E. (Frank Evan), Treasury Department. 1845 R street 
Jounson, Theo. H. (Theodore Halfdan), Geol. Survey. 1115S st 
Jounson, Willard D. (Willard Drake), Geol. Survey. 

Jounsron, James M. (James Marion), Riggs Nat’l Bank. 1628 K street 


Jounston, John A. (John ——). 1752 Q street 
Jones, Dr EH. S. (Edward Salmon), Treasury Department. The Cairo 
Jones, Louise Tayler. 1340 21 street 
Jones, Col. W. A. (William Albert), Balto. and Phila. 1800 Conn. ave 
Jupp, Geo. H. (George Herbert), 420-422 11 street. 511 3 street NE 
Kasson, John A. (John Adam). 1726 I street 
KATTELMANN, Carl. 715 7 street 
KAUFFMANN, 8. H. (Samuel Hay), 1101 Pa. ave. 1421 Mass. ave 
Kertier, Mrs William. The Portner, 15 and U streets 


Ketty, Joseph T., D. D. (Joseph Thomas). 1367 Kenesaw street 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 17 


Kemper, Chas. E. (Charles ), Treasury Dept. 1310 Riggs street 
Kenpatt, Frederick A. (Frederick Albert), 538 15 st. 1455 W street 


KeEnpatt, Maj. H. M. (Henry Myron), u.s. a. Soldiers’ Home 
KENNAN, George. The Mendota 
Kern, J. Q. (Josiah Quincy), Winder Bldg.,17 and F sts. 507 6 street 
Kresry, Bessie J. (Bessie Juliet). 2025 Massachusetts avenue 
Kimpatt, Dr E.G. (Hphraim Gardner), Jefferson Sch’l. 1204 Mass. ave 
Kripa, H. H. (Herbert Harvey), Weather Bureau. 317 T street 
Kimpatt, 8. I. (Sumner I ), Life-Saving Service. 1516 R. I. ave 
Krye, Frank B. (Frank Bockins). 1442 Rhode Island avenue 
Kine, F. H. (Franklin Hiram), Bu. of Soils, Dept. Agric. 2059 street SW 
Kine, George A. (George Anderson), 728 17 street. 1611 28 street 
Kirsy, Chf. Eng. Absalom, v. s. N. 405 C street SE 
Kraxrine, A. (Alfred), Hydrographic Office, Navy Dept. 1137 N. J. ave 
Knapp, Martin A. (Martin Augustine), Sun Building. The Portland 
Konrrperr, E. A. (Egon Anthony). 2234 Q street 
Krarmer, Charles. 735 7 street 


Kesar, Stephen J. (Stephen Joseph), 1330 F st. 628 East Cap. street 
Kumtrr, B. W. (Benjamin Walter), Civil Serv. Com. Kensington, Md 
Kumter, Mrs J. P. E. (Abigail Goulding). 2005 Massachusetts avenue 


Kurtz, Dr John. 3142 P street 
Lacey, E. A. The Octagon 


Lampert, T. A. (‘Tallmadge Augustine), 410 5 street. 1219 Mass. avenue 
Lamstn, James B. (James Baird), 1415 New York avenue. 714 21 street 
Lanper, Mrs J. M. (Jeane Margaret). 45 B street SE 
Lanpon, Mrs Hal. ., Paymaster General’s Office. 

Lanaitue, H. D. (Harold Douglas), Geol. Survey. 

Lane ey, S. P. (Samuel Pierpont), Smithsonian Inst. Metropolitan Club 


LanspurGH, Julius, 512 9 street. ; Cochran Hotel 
Larner, Philip F., 918 F street. 1746 P street 
Law, Mary A., box 464, Station G. 101 North Carolina avenue SE 
Leg, Rey. Thomas S. Lee (Thomas Sim). 1739 Rhode Island avenue 
Leirer, L. Z. (Levi Zeigler). Dupont Circle 
Lerru, Chas. A. (Charles Augustus), Dept. of Agric. 1461 Fla. ave 
Lemon, Dr H. T. A. (Hanson Thomas Asbury). 629 G street 
Lenman, Miss I. H. (Isobel Hunter). 1100 12 street 
Lesu, W. W. (William Williams), Winder Building. 210 T street 
Lesrer, F. A. (Frederick A ), Corcoran Building. 1512 I street 
Leyerine, Thos. H. (Thomas Henry), War Department. 1435 Chapin st 
Lewis, Fulton, 1335 F street. 3033 Irving place 
Linpenkont, A. (Adolphus), Coast Survey. 19 4 street SE 
LinDENKOHBL, H. (Henry), Coast Survey. The Iowa, 13 and O streets 
Ltnkins, Geo. R. (George Reiss), 507 E street. 1925 G street 


9 


18 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Lisner, A. (Abraham), 11 and G streets. 1723 Massachusetts ayenue 
~ LircHFIeELp, Grace Denio. 2010 Massachusetts avenue 
Litrett, Frank B. (Frank Bowers), Naval Observatory. 1825 13 street 
Lrrrir, Charles W.(Charles William), P.O. Department. 3110 13 street 
Lrrrir, Norton M. (Norton Mitchell), 1210 F street. 1123 Dartmouth st 
LirtLEnAes, G. W. (George Washington), Hydro. Off. 2132 Le Roy pl 
Lorrus, Edward (Edward Herbert), Siamese Legation. Arlington Hotel 


Lona, C. C. (Charles C.), Dept. of Justice. “Argyle,” 14 Street road 
Lorp, Miss Cora A. (Cora Adella), Post-Office Dept. 1243 N. J. avenue 
Lorp, Daniel W. (Daniel Walter), Patent Office. 1333 Q street 
Lorine, Mrs Charlotte. The Colonial 
Lorurop, Alvin Mason, 11 and F streets. 1303 K street 
Low, James P. (James Patterson), Treasury Dept. 1328 Corcoran street 
Lupineron, M. I. (Marshall I——), War Department. 1818 Q street 
LueBKert, Otto J.J.(Otto James John), Bureau of Forestry. 1804 R st 
Lum, W. David (W—— David). 128 S street 
Lusk, Maj. Jas. L. (James Loring), War Department. 1709 21 street 


Lyman, Chas. (Charles Lyman), Treasury Dept. 1248 New Jersey ave 


McBripg, Miss Marguerite. 450 Pennsylvania avenue 
McCasp, Thos. (Thomas), Depot Q. M. Office. 206 Kentucky ave. SE 
McCatu, Mrs Samuel W. 1703 Q street 
McCammon, Jos. K. (Joseph Kay), Bond Building. 1524 19 street 
McCenry, Miss Mary E. (Mary Elizabeth). The Shoreham, 15 and H sts 
McCormick, Jas. (James), Geol. Survey. Hotel Stratford 
McConnett, Mrs M. R. (Matilda R ). 201 East Capitol street 
McCreary, Albertus. 1116 F street 
McGrr, W J, Bureau of American Ethnology. 1901 Baltimore street 
McGitt, Mary C. (Mary Cecilia). 1345 Corcoran street 
McGrata, John KE. (John Edward), Coast Survey. 1016 Vt. ave 
McGuire, F. B. (Frederick Bauders), Corcoran Art.Gal’y. 1833 Conn. aye 
MckKnay, Fred. G. (Frederick George). 1220 New Hampshire avenue 


McKekr, Thos. H. (Thomas Hudson), House of Reps. 7 Grant place 
McKenney, Wm. A. (William Archer), 1405 G street. The Mendota 


McKim, Randolph H. (Randolph Harrison). 1621 K street 
McLanauan, G. Wm. (George William). 1601 21 street 
McLaueutin, Dr Thomas N. (Thomas Notley). 1226 N street 
McLean, N. E. L. (Nellie Ellis Louise), Dennison School. 913 French st 
McManus, A. B. (Augustine Boas), Navy Department. 814 22 street 


McNair, E. L. (Eugene Long), 1330 F st.,(U.S.G.S.). 931 K street 
McReynotps, F.W. (Frederick Wilson), Fendall Bldg. 1437 Staughtonst 
McWirr1am, Janet, Thomson School. 2142 K street 
Macraruanp, H. B. F. (Henry Brown Floyd), District bldg. 1816 F st 
Mappox, Samuel, 340 Indiana avenue. 1715 H street 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 19 


Magruper, John H. (John Holmes), 1152 Conn. ave. 1843 S street 
Mauierr, Miss Anna S. (Anna Smith). 1454 Rhode Island avenue 
Manning, Van. H. (Vannoy Hartrog), Geol. Survey. 3112 Q street 
Marinpin, Henry L. (Henry Louis), Coast Survey. Woodside, Md 
Maraquez, Dr L. Cuerro. Address wnknonn. 

Martin, Artemas, Coast Survey Office. 915 N street 
Marvin, C. F. (Charles Frederick), Weather Bureau. 1404 Binney street 
Mason, Mrs M. L. (Marie Louise). 45 B street SH 
MarruHns, Francois EK. (Francois Emile), Geol. Survey. The Varnum 
Marrues, Gerard H. (Gerard Hendrik), Geol. Survey. The Varnum 
Marrineity, Wm. F. (William Francis), 435 7 street. 1616 H street 
Mauro, Philip, 620 F street. 1616 22 street 
May, Heber J., Washington Loan and Trust Co. 1414 21 street 
Maynarp, Geo. C. (George Colton), National Museum. 1407 15 street 
Maynarp, W. (Washburn), Treasury Department. The Portner 
Mayo, Mrs C. L. (Cordelia Lucy). 906 14 street. 
Meres, Jno., Jr. (John). 5325 2 street SE 


MELVILLE, Geo, W. (George Wallace), Navy Department. 1720 H street 
Merriam, C. Hart (Clinton Hart), Biological Survey. 1919 16 street 
Merriman, Geo. B. (George Benjamin), Naval Obs. 1122 Vermont ave 
Mesny, A. B. Le(Arthur Bonamy Le Patourel), Navy Dept. The Mendota 
Meyer, John H. F. 904 23 street 
Micnener, L. T. (Louis Theodore), Pacific Building. 1624 19 street 
MipprerTon, Arthur E. H. (Arthur Edward Henry), 51511 st. 1833 15st 
Mires, Gen. Nelson A. (Nelson Appleton), u.s. A., War Dept. 1786 N st 


Miirr, Mrs Almy. 941 H street 
Miter, EH. H. (Eleazar Hutchinson). 1109 M street 
Mitts, Anson. 2 Dupont circle 
Mirick, H. D. (Henry Dustin), 1417 New York avenue. 1302 N street 
MircHet, Guy Elliott, Room 6, 1419 F street. The Randolph 
Mircue.t, Hon. John L. 32 B street NE 
Monvett, Hon. Frank Wheeler, House of Reps. Dewey Hotel 
Moors, F. L. (Frederic Lawrence), 1403 F street. 1680 31 street 
Moors, Willis L. (Willis Luther), Weather Bureau. 1616 5 street 
Morris, M. F. (Martin Ferdinand), Court of Appeals, D.C. 1314 Mass. ave 


Morsetit, Wm. F. (William F ), Geol. Survey. 1810 5 street 
Moron, Geo L. (George Luton), Room 256, Patent Office, 1310 Q street 
Moses, Emma R. (Emma Richardson), Treas. Dept. 1404 Bacon street 
Moses, H. C. (Henry Clark), 1100 F street. 1322 19 street 
Mossgs, W. H. (William Henderson), 11 and F sts. 2129 Wyoming ave 
Mosman, A. T. (Alonzo Tyler), Coast and Geod. Survey, 228N.Jave.SE 
Motrin, Mrs N. R. (Nellie Ristine). 1340 21 street 
Murcu, B. W. (Ben Wilton), Force School. 627 Florida avenue NE 
Morty, A. EK. (Arlington Elliott), Geol. Survey. 1911 2 street 


20 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Morray, B. P. (Bentley Philander), War Department. 10 5 street NE 


Murray-Aaron, Dr Eugene. 1839 Summit avenue, Lanier Heights 
Murcuirr, Hon. Howard, House of Representatives. Willard Hotel 
Myers, Mrs Mary H. (Mary Hewitt). The Portland 


Myvtineer, C. (Caroline), Navy Department Library. 1012 15 street 


Nautir, R. M. (Robert Mason), Room 512, P. O. Dept. 1016 15 street 
Nerpuam, Chas. W. (Charles Willis), Col. Law Bldg. 1428 Mass. ave 


Netson, I. W. (Edward William). Department of Agriculture 
Nerspit, Leo H., Coast Survey. 227 New Jersey avenue SH 
Nerwcomp, Simon. 1620 P street 


Newe tt, F. H. (Frederick Haynes), Geol. Survey. 1829 Phelps place 
Nipxack, Lieut. Albert P. (Albert Parker), u.s.n. Navy Department 
Nimmo, Joseph, Jr. 1831 F street 
Noyes, Crosby 8. (Crosby Stuart), Evening Star. Sligo, Md. 
Noyes, Theo. W. (Theodore Williams), 1101 Pa. ave. 1730 N. H. ave 


OxpEeRHOLsER, Harry C. (Harry Church), Dept. Agric. 1505 Howard aye 
O'Brign, Robert L. (Robert Lincoln), 1403 F st., Wyatt Bldg. 250419 st 
Oapen, H. G. (Herbert Gouverneur), Coast Survey. 1610 Riggs place 
Otnery, Edward B. (Edward Beekman), Gen. Land Office. 310 E street 


Osaoop, C. N. (Charles Nathan), 1317 F street. 17138 P street 
Oscoop, Wilfred H. (Wilfred Hudson), Dept. Agric. 925 Westminster st 
O’Tooir, Mary B. (Mary Byrne), Treasury Dept. ~ 2494 Pa. avenue 


Owen; Fred. D, (Frederick. Denison), War Department. 3 Grant place 


PaGE, James, Hydrographic Office. 1708 H street 
Paar, Thomas Nelson, New Hampshire avenue and R street 
Paine, W. T. (Walter Taylor), General Land Office. 140 F street SE 


Parnrer, Mrs U. H. (Linda Avery). 1825 13 street 
Patmer, T. 8. (Theodore Sherman), Dept. of Agriculture. 1604 18 st 
Parxer, D. (Daingerfield). 1506 21 street 
Parker, E. Southard, 613 15 street. 1758 Connecticut avenue 


Parker, EK. W. (Edward Wheeler), New York, N. Y. 1728 Riggs place 
Parker, Myron M. (Myron Melvin), 1418 F street. 1020 Vermont ave 
Parker, R. Wayne (Richard Wayne), Newark, N. J. 1501 Mass. ave 
Parsons, Francis H. (Francis Henry), Library of Cong. 2101 street SE 
Parten, J. D. (John Dewhurst), 720 15 street. 2212 R street 
Parrrrson, Eliza T. (Mrs Albert M.). 20 Iowa circle 
Parrerson, Mrs Flora W.( Flora Wambaugh),Dept.Agric. The Albemarle 
Parrerson, Miss M.A. (Melvina A.). The Mendota, 20 st.and Kala. ave 
Parrerson, Miss M. EH. (Marie E.) : 1100 Vermont avenue 
Payne, Jas. G. (James George), Court House. 2112 Massachusetts ave 
Payson, L. EH. (Lewis Edwin). 1229 Massachusetts avenue 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA al 


Prapopy, W. F. (William Frederick), Coast Survey. 918 L street 
Prate, Dr A. C. (Albert Charles), National Museum. 605 12 street 
Prarson, R. A. (Raymond Allen), Dept. of Agriculture. The Clifton 
PEELLE, Stanton J. (Stanton Judkins), Court of Claims. The Concord 
PeLiEw, Henry EH. 1637 Massachusetts avenue 
Penney, Mrs W. H. (Mrs William Henry). 420 C street SH 
PENFIELD, Hon. W. L. (William Lorenzo), State Dept. Dewey Hotel 
Prruam, A.S. (Aurestus Sidney), Pension Bureau. 905 Westminster st 


Perkins, E. T., Jr. (Edmund Taylor). Geological Survey 
Perkins, Frank Walley, Coast and Geod. Survey. 1344 Vermont avenue 
Perkins, Geo. C. (George Clement). U.S. Senate 
Perkins, H, C. (Henry Cleveland). 1701 Connecticut avenue 
Perers, EH. T. (Kdward T.), Dept. of Agriculture. 131 E street 
Prerers, Lt. Comdr. Geo. H. (George Henry), u.s.n. 1854 Columbia road 
Peters, Wm. J. (William John). Geological Survey 


Prau, Jas. A. (James A ys Coast and Geodetic Survey 
Patiuiirs, W. F. R. (William Fowke Ravenel), Weather Bu. 1418 L st 
Pierce, Josiah, Jr., Atlantic Building, 928 F street. 1325 Mass. avenue 
Pruuine, J. W. (John Walter), 917 F street. 1301 Massachusetts avenue 


PrycnHor, Gifford, 930 F street. 1615 Rhode Island avenue 
Prees, F. H. (Dr Felix Hughes), Pension Office. 437 Mass. avenue 
Pirrs, Geo. B. (George Bassett), 507 E street. 144 C street NE 
Prant, George H., Jr. 1429 New York avenue 
Prarr, O. H. (Orville Hitchcock), U. 8. Senate. The Arlington 
Portner, Robert. 1104 Vermont avenue 
Porter, C. M. (Cyrus Montgomery), Post-Office Dept. 522 D street NE 
Powe tt, Mrs A. G. (Altha Gibbs). The Cairo, 1629 Q street 
Powe tt, Mrs Randolph (Diana Kearny). . 1734 K street 
Pratt, Electus A. (Electus A——). 1828 13 street 
Presie, Edward A., Dept. of Agriculture. The Virginia, 2120 G street 
Prescorr, Ben., Post-Office Department. 26 Grant place 


Prescorr, Rey. Philip M. (Philip Maxwell). The Sherman, 15 and L sts 
Prewitt, Dr G. T. (George Thompson), 511 10 street. 103 2 street NE 
PrinDiE, Rear Admiral F. C., u. s. . The Cairo 
Procror, Hon. Redfield, U. S. Senate. 1535 L street 
Proury, C. A. (Charles Azro), Sun Bldg. The Portner, 15th and U sts 
Putsirer, Wm. H, (William Henry). The Grafton, 1189 Conn. avenue 
Putnam, Herbert, Library of Congress. 1834 I street 


RapcuiFrre, Wallace, N. Y. Ave. Presbyterian Church, 1200 K street 
Raupu, Dr Wm. L. (William Legrange), National Museum, ‘The Portner 
Ratston, Jackson H. (Jackson Harvey), Bond Bldg. Hyattsville, Md 
Ramsay, Wm. (William), 1221 F street. 1502 Kenesaw avenue 
Ranp, Pay Inspector Stephen, v. s. N. Ebbitt House 


22 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Ranpatit, A—— E—. Congress Heights 
Rank, J. E. (Jeremiah Eames), Howard Univ. University campus 
Rankin, John M..(John McClure), Atlantic Bldg. 1903 Kalorama ave 
RAVENEL, W. de C. (William de Chastignier), Nat. Mus. 1611 Riggs st 


Raymonp, Prof. Geo. L. (George Lansing). 1810 N street 
Reapurn, D. L. (De Witt Lee), Geol. Survey. 1807 G street 
Reap, Miss Jane. 3028 N street 
Repway, Capt. George, General Land Office. 1328 Columbia road 
REIFENRATH, Miss Minnie A. 717 10 street 
Retuty, Philip K. (Philip Key). 2321 Pennsylvania avenue 
Remey, George C. (George Collier). 1312 21 street 
Remp, Miss Lulu. 1726 5 street 


RueeEs, Wm. J. (William Jones), Smithsonian Inst. Spring and 14 ext 
RicHarps, Miss J. EH. (Janet Elizabeth H ), Chevy Chase. 1319 Yale st 
Ricwarps, J. K. (John Kelvey), Dept. of Justice. 13835 Conn. avenue 
Ricuarps, W. A.(William Alford), General Land Office. 2455 18 street 


Ricuarps, Wm. P. (William Pemberton)’ 309 Elm street 
RicHarpson, Alonzo B. (Alonzo Blair), Govt. Hospital for Insane. 

Ricwarpson, Dr Charles W. (Charles Williamson). 1102 L street 
Ricuarpson, F. A. (Francis A ). 1308 Vermont avenue 
Rirrrer, Homer P. (Homer Peter), Coast Survey. U.S.and possessions 
Rizer, H. C. (Henry Clay), Geol. Survey. 2568 University place 
Roperts, Ellis H. (Ellis Henry), Office of Treas. U.S. 1313 Mass. ave 
Roserts, Geo. E. (George Evan), Treas. Dept. 1806 N. H. avenue 
Roserts, W. F. (William Florian), 730 15th street. 1318 Kenyon street 
Roperrson, P. W. (Powhatan Wyndham). 2232 Q street 
Roprinson, Miss A. M. (Anna Mabel). 2004 35 street 
Roprnson, W. P. (William Pitt). 1789 17 street 
Roe.xer, C. R. (Charles Rafael), 702 17 street. 1434 Q street 
Rorssir, T. E. Arlington Hotel 
Roaers, Walter F. (Walter Forwood), 939 F street. 914 R. I. avenue 
Romero, Sefior Don José Mexican Legation 
Romeyn, Major Henry, v.s. A. 714 20 street 
Runyan, E. G. (Elmer Gardner), Dept. of Agric. 300 R street NE 


RussELL, Capt. A. H. (Andrew Howland), War Department. 
Rurrer, Frank R. (Frank Roy), Dept. Agric. 429 N. Carey st., Balto., Md 


Sanpers, L. M. (Louis Milton). 44 Q street NE 
Sanprrs, T. B. (Thomas Bradford). 2309 M street 
SanaeEr, Alice B. (Alice Belle), P. O. Dept. 1029 Connecticut avenue 
Sareent, R. H. (Rufus Harvey), Geol. Survey. 1728 Columbia road 
Saunpgers, Wm. H. (William Henry), 1407 F st. 13808 Roanoke street 
Savary, John. Cosmos Club 
SaviLie, J. H. (James Hamilton). 1420 17 street 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 23 


Scuneiper, T. F. (Thomas Franklin), Bond Bldg. The Cairo, 1615 Q st 
ScHoEnporn, William EH. (William Ernest), Pat. Off. 1859 Harvard st 


ScHucHeErtT, Charles, National Museum. 1422 Stauchton street 
ScipmorgE, Eliza R. (Eliza Ruhamah). 1837 M street 
Scorr, Miss Fannie T. The Ebbitt House 
Scort, James A. (James Alexander), Govt. Printing Off. 921 O street 
Scorr, W. O. N. (William Owen Nixon). 1011 Connecticut avenue 
Seaman, Wm. H. (William Henry), Room 258, Pat. Office. 1424 11 street 
Srpeuey, Miss Isabel (Mary Isabel). 1779 Massachusetts avenue 
Srverence, Miss Bessie E. (Bessie Eva). 1121 14 street 
Seymour, H. A. (Henry Albert), 913 F street. 1337 Connecticut avenue 
Seymour, H. W. (Henry W——). 1708 R street 
Suanps, A. R. (Aurelius Rives). 1819 New York avenue 


Suwa, N. H. (Nicholas H—), 632 Pennsylvaniaavenue. 1320 12 street 
SHeEak, Cornelius L.(Cornelius Lott), Dept. Agric. Elmave., Takoma Pk 
Suipy, L. P. (Leland Perry), Coast Survey. 1617 Marion street 
SHormakrr, C. F. (Charles Frederick), Treasury Dept. 1303 Yale street 
SiesBrn, Capt. C. D. (Charles Dwight), Navy Dept. 1632 Riggs place 
Srivers, Miss Grace 8. (Grace 8 ). 910 L street 
Simpson, Horton, Hubbard School, 12 and Kenyon sts. 1758 Corcoran st 
Simpson, Dr J. C., (John Crayke), Govt. Hosp. for Ins. St. Elizabeth’s 
Srncratr, C. H. (Cephas Hempstone), Coast Survey. . 922 Farragut sq 
Sater, I. C. (Isaac Cooper). 404 New Jersey avenue 
Stoane, M. EH. (Mersene Elon), Census Office. 1001 Mass. avenue NE 
Smatt, J. H., Jr. (John Henry), 621 14 street. 1227 New York avenue 
Smart, Charles, Surg. General’s Office, War Dept. 2017 Hillyer place 
Smiuiis, G. F. C., Bureau of Engraving and Printing. 1317 Yale street 
Smiry, Francis H. 1418 F street 
Smrru, Geo. Otis (George Otis), Geol. Survey. The Iowa, 13 and O sts 
Smirxu, Herman W. (Herman Wilson), Weather Bu. 1319 Lydecker ave 


Smiru, J. Henry (James Henry). _ 1619 17 street 
SmirxH, Lincoln A. 1527 O street 
Smiru, Middleton, Department of Agric. 1616 19 street 
Smiru, Odell 8. (Odell Seymour), Central National Bank. 1336 U street 
Smiru, Mrs 38. T. (Sterling Tuft). 1626 19 street 
Suitx, Th. W. (Thomas Wilson). 1 st.and Ind. ave. 616 East Cap. st 
Syow, Alpheus H. (Alpheus Henry). 1417 Massachusetts avenue 
Snow, Charles C. (Charles Carleton). 1737 9 street 
Snowpgn, Lt. Thomas. 1101 24 street 
Somers, Mrs Elizabeth J——. 1100 M street 
Sommer, Ernest J. (Ernest Julius), Coast Survey. 1227 O street 
Souruer, John K. (John Kerfoot). 1806 New Hampshire avenue 


SourHerLanp, W.H.H. (William Henry Hudson), Hydrographic Office 
Sowers, Dr Z. T. (Zachariah Turner). 1320 New York avenue 


24 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAI GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


SpanHoorp, A. W. (Arnold Werner), Central High School. 1636 16 st 


Spear, Ellis, 1003 F street. The Manhattan, 1501 Park street 
Spencer, Jas. W. (James William), Geol. Survey. 906 14 street 
SPENCER, Mrs Sara A. Spencerian College, 9 and D streets 


Sperry, Hon. N. D. (Nehemiah Day), House Reps. The Buckingham 
Sporrorp, A. R. (Ainsworth Rand), Lib. of Congress. 1334 Mass. ave 
Squire, Capt. G. O. (George Owen), War Dept. Army and Navy Club 
Srarrorp, Rev. D. J. (Dennis J——). 619 10 street 
Srantry-Browny, J. (Joseph), 120 B’dway, N. Y. city. 1318 Mass. ave 
SrarkKWHATHER, Geo. B. (George Briggs), Forest Lk. Cem. Bowen road 
Sravety, Dr Albert L. (Albert Livingston). 1234 14 street 
Srern, Robert. Geol. Survey 
Srettwacen, Edward J. (Mdward James), 1414 F st. Washington Hts 
SrerHens, John J.(John James), Winder Bldg.,17 and F sts. 1812 13 st 
SrERNBERG, Geo. M. (George Miller), u.s. a., War Dept. 1440 M street 
Srerson, Frank O. (Frank Owen), Weather Bureau. 1217 Kenesaw aye 


Stevens, F. C. (Frederick Charles), 1415.G street. 1628 16 street 
Srewart, Alonzo H. (Alonzo Hopkins), U.S. Senate. 204 4 street SE 
Srewart, Joseph, Post-Office Department. 1540 Howard avenue 


Srockine, Mrs P. M. (Patty Miller), Room 4, Int. Dept. The Westover 
Srobver, Frank M. (Frank Melancthon), Navy Dept. 2451 18 street 


Srorer, Alfred J. 501 14 street 
Sroxes, H. N. (Henry Newlin), Geol. Survey. 3102 U street 
Sronk, I. 8. (Isaac Scott), 1449 R. I. avenue. 1618 R. I. avenue 
STrRANAHAN, Wm. (William), Geol. Survey. 113 Grant place 
Striper, Mrs L. C. (Luke Cheney). 1450 Rhode Island avenue 
Srrone, Frank, Department of Justice. The Savoy, 2804 14 street 
StuurmMan, A. W. (Augustus Wesley). 601 I street 
Sturtevant, Mrs J. A. B. (Jane A—— B——). 1453 Howard avenue 
SUGENHEIMER, S. (Salomon). 1142 7 street 
Summers, Milo C. (Milo Colburn), Surg. Gen. Off., War Dept. 3147 st. NE 
Surron, Frank, Geol. Survey. 25 Lafayette place 
Swinete, W. T. (Walter Tennyson), Dept. Agriculture. 1410 Q street 
TatBorr, Dr Robert W. (Robert W——.). 700 14 street 
Tanner, Mrs M. L. (Mero L——). 1416 N street 
Tanner, Z. L. (Zera Luther). The Cairo 
Tapiin, Mrs Horatio N. (Horatio Nelson). 1538 I street 
Taytor, H. W. (Henry Walton), House of Reps. 100 5 street NE 
Taytor, James K. (James Knox), Treasury Dept. The Portland 
Taytor, N. R. (Nathaniel Ratcliffe), 2222 Post-Office st.’ 1426 O street 
Taytor, Wm. A. (William Alton), Dept. of Agric. 55 Q street NE 
Tuayer, Rufus H. (Rufus Hildreth), 980 F street. 806 17 street 


THomps, Mrs A. L. 8. (Adelia L 


S——). 1324 Massachusetts avenue 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 25 


THompson, Prof. A. H. (Almon Harris) Geol. Survey. 1729 12 street 


Txompson, Mrs John W. 1419 I street 
Tuompson, Miss Mary Ida. 1539 I street 
TxHompeson, W. B. (William Baker), 1419 F street. 1621S street 
Tuursron, Ernest L. (Ernest Lawton), Col. Univ. 1508 Kenesaw ave 
Tispet, W. P. (Willard Parker). 1746 Q street 
Tirrmann, O. H. (Otto Hilgard), Coast Survey. 1624 Riges place 
Topry, George EH. (George E )- 1221 K street 
TorBert, John B. (John Bryant), Post-Office Dept. 111 C street SE. 
Torren, G. O., Jr. (George Oakley). 801 19 street 
Tows.ey, Orson V. (Orson V ). 1905 Kalorama avenue 
Tratn, Miss Alice Brown. The Olympia 


TriepeL, Mrs Emma M. V. (Emma Matthews Vaughan), Treas. Dept. 
1731 F street. 


TrimsiA, Matthew, District Building. 1320 Rhode Island avenue 
Trop, Dr A. C. (Alfred Charles), Dept. of Agric. 1604 17 street 
TRUESDELL, Geo. (George), 1403 F street. 19 street and Columbia road 
Tuttocu, Mrs M. B. (Miranda Barney). 121 B street SE 


Turk, W. A. (William Armstrong), 1300 Pa. ave. 2026 Columbia road 
Turner, Miss Edith G. (Edith G ), Post-Office Dept. 414 B streetNE. 
Tweepy, Frank, Geol. Survey. 3416 13 street 
Tyrer, Richard K. (Richard Knickerbocker), 1307 F st. 1753 N street 


ULKE, Julius, Jr., Post-Office Department. 1427 U street 
Urquuart, Chas. F. (Charles Fox), Geol. Survey. Lanier Heights 
Van Rensse“apr, John. 2 Thomas circle 
Van Reyren, W. K. (William Knickerbocker). 1021 15 street 


Van Wicks, W. P. (William Perrine), 1225 Penna. ave. 1757 Q street 
Vinal, W. Irving (Washington Irving), Coast Survey. 1106 E. Cap. st 
Vincent, Gen. Thomas N. (Thomas Norris). 1221 N street 
VouLLant, Gregory de, Russian Embassy. 1829 I street 


Warnwaicut, D. B. (Dallas Bache), Coast Survey. 1409 Chapin street 
Waiter, Miss Mary F. (Mary Frances). The Edwards, 816 15 street 
Watcorrt, Chas. D. (Charles Doolittle), Geol. Sur., 1330 F st. 2117S st 
Waker, A. M. (Albert Mynard), Geol. Survey. 1808 G street 
Waker, Capt. Kenzie W. (Kenzie Wallace), u.s. a. Care Adjt. Gen’l 
Waker, William H. (William H ), 1006 F street. The Concord 
Watuts, Wm. J. (William James), Eastern High School. 647 E. Cap. st 
Watpote, F. A. (Frederick Andrews), Dept. Agric. 1834 Kalorama ave 
Watsn, Helen I. (Helen Ivey), Johnson Sch., Mt P. 1261 Kenesaw ave 
Wausu, Thos. F. (Thomas Francis), 1420 N. Y. ave. 2020 Mass. ave 
Warp, Miss Eliza Titus. 5 Grant place 


3 


26 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Warp, Mrs Fannie B. (Fannie B——). 1111 Massachusetts avenue 
Warp, H. P. (Hiram P. Ne The Hamilton, 14 and K streets 
Warper, Mrs R. B. (Gulielma Darland). Howard University 


Warman, P. C. (Philip Creveling), Geol. Survey, 1330 F st. 3345 16 st 
Warner, Brainard H. (Brainard Henry), 916 F st. 2100 Mass. avenue 
Warers, Dr W. E. (William Elkanah), v.s. 4. The Chapin, 1415 Chapin st 
Watson, J. A. (James Angus), 918 F street. 1454 Howard avenue 
Wess, H. Randall (Harry Randall), 416-418 5 street. 727 19 street 


Wess, Capt. Walter D. (Walter D : War Dept. 
Weser, Geo. W. (George W ), 1509 F street. 210 E street 
Wesster, Daniel, Genl. Land Office. 3437 Holmead avenue 
Wesster, N. E., Jr. (Norman Edward), P.O. Dept. 1443 Sheridan ave 
WEILER, Ferd. (Ferdinand), Treas. Dept. 1316 V street 
Wetnricu, Wm., Jr. (William). Coast Survey 
Wetcu, Geo. B. (George Bramwell), 1344 G st. 2011 Wyoming ave 
Wetxer, P. A..(Philip A.), Comdg. Str. Bache. Coast Survey 
WELLMAN, Walter, 1413 G street. 1409 21 street 
We tts, Henry, 1410 G street. The Richmond, 17 and H streets 
Wetts, S. W. (Stuart Wilder), 1325 14 street. 1347 Q street 
WESTINGHOUSE, George. Dupont circle 
WestincHousr, George, Jr. Dupont circle 

WestincHousk, Mrs George. Dupont circle 


Wetmore, Geo. Peabody (George Peabody), U.S. Senate. 1609 K street 
WHEELER, H. W. (Henry Weston), Treas. Dept. 212 Randolph st. NE 
WHELPLEY, J. D. (James Davenport), 1417 G street. 2118 Conn. ave: 


Wuire, Miss Elizabeth Walker. 1614 New Hampshire avenue 
Wuirter, Fletcher, Pension Office. 425 4 street 
Wuite, Henry, 1231 G street. 2568 University place 
Wuirtr, J. L. (James Lyall). 3419 Brown street 
Wuirs, Jno. H. (John Howard). 2111 Bancroft place 
Wurre, Mabel L. (Mabel Louise), Treas. Dept. 1401 Massachusetts ave 
Wuitine, Harry C. (Harry Carlyle), Navy Dept. 1919 G street 
Wuirremore, W. C. (William Clark). 1526 New Hampshire avenue 
Wuirresry, HE. (Kliphalet), 1429 New York avenue. 8 Lowa circle 
WuirtLesry, Geo. P. (George Patten), 902 F st. 1430 Staughton street 
Wieut, Hon. John B. (John Brewer), 1312 F street. 1767 Q street 
Witcox, Mrs Helen M. (Helen Mary Cleveland). The Arlington 
Witcox, Walter D. (Walter Dwight). 1526 New Hampshire avenue 
Witxinson, Dr A. G. (Ahab George), Patent Office. 1526 K street 
Wuxkrs, Miss Jane. 814 Connecticut avenue 
Wixins, Hon. Beriah, Washington Post. The Grafton, Conn. ave. near 
K street. 


Witiarp, Henry A. (Henry Augustus), 1416 F street. 1333 K street 
WILLARD, Joseph E. Willard Hotel, Pa. avenue and 14 street 


DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 27 


Witticox, Walter F. (Walter Francis), Census Office. Cosmos Club 
Wuriams, Henry E. (Henry Eugene), Weather Bureau. The Cameron 
Witttams, Maj. L. P. (Leander Perry). Supreme Court 


Wits, Miss Mary E. (Mary Evelyn), Dept. Agric. |The Litchfield 
Wititams, Richard P. (Richard Pardee), 226 Indiana ave. 219 C street 


Witits, Bailey, 1830 F street. 2115 Bancroft place 
Witson, Miss Alisan. The Lenox, L street near 15 street 
Wirson, H. M. (Herbert Michael), Geol. Survey, 1330 Fst. 1706 21 st 
Wirson, J. F. (J— F ys 633 East Capitol street 


Witson, John M. (John Moulder), u.s. 4. 1773 Massachusetts avenue 
Witson, Miss Laura A. (Laura Augusta), Census Office. 1446 R. L. ave 


Witson, Nathaniel, 624 F street. 912 17 street 
Wirson, Thomas, National Museum. 1218 Connecticut avenue 
Wyss, Fred. H. (Frederick Howard), Census Office. 1446 Staughton st 
Winston, Isaac, Coast Survey. 1325 Corcoran street 
Winter, M. A. (Mahlon Alpheus), 339 Penna. avenue. 14S street 
WInTERHALTER, Lieut. A. G. (A G No Navy Dept. 
Winters, Louis, 24 and M streets, Weather Bur. 132 C street SE 
Wotrr, Simon, 926 F street. 1756 Q street 
Woop, D. W. (David Wesley). The Albany, cor. 17 and H streets 
Woop, Miss Hattie P. (Hattie Patience). 1301 K street 
Woop, Brig. Gen. Leonard, u. s. A., 1812 H street. | Metropolitan Club 
WoopuHutr, Maxwell Van Zandt. 2033 G street 


Woopwarp, 8. W. (Samuel W—-), 1l and F sts. 2015 Wyoming ave 
Woopwarp, Thomas P. (Thomas Pursell), 507 E street. 66 M street 
Woopworts, M. (Milton), Treasury Dept. 1424 8 street 
Wooster, Walter M. (Walter Mallery), Interior Dept. 1449 Meridian st 
Worxman, Henry C. (Henry Charles), Patent Office. 1326 Kenesaw ave 
Worrurneton, A.S. (Augustus Storrs), 416 5 st. 2015 Mass. avenue 
Wren, H. B. (Harry Bertrand), Weather Bur.,24and M sts. 912 23 st 
Waieat, Carroll D. (Carroll Davidson), 1429 N.Y. ave. 1845 Vermont ave 
Waiceut, Miss Elizabeth. 2434 Pennsylvania avenue 
Wricur, Hallie L. (Hallie Lowndes). 332 Indiana avenue 
Wirpemany, Frank G. (Frank Gustave), Coast Sur. 124 Mass. ave. NE 
Wirpemany, J. V. (John Vanderbilt), Lib. of Cong. 124 Mass. ave. NE 
Wycxorr, Harry, 511 10 street. 1308 Yale street 
Wyman, Walter, 3 B street SE. The Richmond, 801 17 street 


Youne, Jno. M. (John MceMurtrie), 1110 Pa. ave. The Hawarden,1419 R st 
XAnNDER, Henry. 909 7 street 


Zevenoy, A. (Alexander), Russian Embassy. 1829 I street 


28 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


FLORIDA 


Buty, Cmdr. J. H. (James Henry), vu. s. n.. Light-house Inspector, 7 
District, Key West 

Kennepy, J. A., School for Deaf, Jacksonville 

MacGonieLr, Rey. Jno. N. (John Nowry), Memorial Presbyterian 
Church. The Manse, St Augustine 

Memmincer, C. G., Bartow 


GEORGIA 


Boyer, H. B. (Harry Bright), U. S. Weather Bureau, P. O. Building. 
225 Taylor street, East Savannah 

Hatt, B. M. (Benjamin Mortimer), 409-11-13 Temple court. 190 Forest 
avenue, Atlanta 

Hanna, H. M. (Howard Melville), 53 River street, Cleveland Ohio. 
Thomasville 

RussrELyt-Hownanp, H. F. (H F ), Allatoona 

Marsury, John B. (John Bayne), Room 1410 Empire Building, cor. 
Broad and Marietta streets. 21 Garfield place, Atlanta. 

NortHen, W. J. (William Jonathan), 407 Equitable building. Hotel 
Majestic, Peachtree street, Atlanta 

Weeks, J. R. (John Rockwell), Government Building, cor. 3 and Mul- 
berry streets. 415 New street, Macon 


IDAHO 


BLANDFoRD, S. M. (Samuel Mudd), 9103 Main st. 508 13 street, Boise 
Dins, N.S. (Nathan Shirley), Caldwell 

Foster, Dr Richard, Weiser 

Prrrins, I. B. (Ira Burton), Blue Lakes 

SHELpy, P. P. (Peter Paul), Weiser 

Taytor, Dr J. M. J M ), Boise 

Watpron, J. W. (Joseph Winfield), Shoshone 

Wuey, A. J. (Andrew Jackson), 320 N. 7 street, Boise 


ILLINOIS 


Aprecat, F. J. (Franklin Jacob), 315-3821 Wabash avenue. 209 Ash- 
land Boulevard, Chicago 

Anprews, Dr KE. Wyllys (Edward Wyllys), 100 State street. 2525 
Prairie avenue, Chicago 

ASHLEY, Osborn, Brown’s Hotel, Chicago 

Atwoop, Wallace W. (Wallace Walter), University of Chicago. 5450 
Ridgewood Court, Chicago 


ILLINOIS 29 


Ayer, Edward Everett, Old Colony Building, 84 Van Buren street. 1 
Bank street, Chicago 

BaBer, Zonia, School of Education, University of Chicago. 5623 Mad- 
ison avenue, Chicago 

Barrett, R. L. (Robert Le Moyne), London City and Midland Bank, 
Threadneedle street, London, Eng. 109 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago 

Beneston, C. A. (Charles Alfred), 315 Wabash avenue. 1097 Carmen 
avenue, Chicago 

Buunt, §. E. (Stanhope English), Rock Island Arsenal 

Bower, R. A. (Robert A ), 166 Adams st. 822 N. Park ave., Chicago 

Brackett, Col. William 8. (William S ), 108 Randolph ave., Peoria 

Brayron, Geo. A. (George A ), 6319 Yale avenue, Chicago 

Brown, John, Drovers’ National Bank. 3426 Michigan ave., Chicago 

Burron, W. J. (William Jesse), 378 Wabash avenue. 5648 Madison 
avenue, Chicago 

CasweELL, Dr §. J. (Stephen Jesse), 323 West State street. 616 George 
street, Rockford 

CuHaALMeErs, W. J. (\W—— J——), 12 st. and Washtenaw avenue, Chicago 

CHAMBERLIN, T. C. (Thomas Chrowder), University of Chicago. Hyde 
Park Hotel, Chicago. 

Cootry, E. L. (Ernest L—), 1010 Security Bldg., 188 Madison street, 
Chicago 

Cootry, Lyman E. (Lyman E——), C. E., Chicago 

Cox, Henry J. (Henry Joseph),Weather Bureau. 6908 Vernon avenue, 
Chicago 

Cran, Charles R. (Charles Richard), 10 North Jefferson street. 2559 
Michigan avenue, Chicago 

Dorsry, Geo. A. (George Amos), Field Columbian Museum, Chicago 

Ecxets, Hon. James H. (James H ), Chicago 

Exuiort, D. G. (Daniel Giraud), Field Columbian Museum, Chicago 

Eyans, Lynden (Lynden Edwin Ryder), 107 Dearborn street. 3500 
Schiller street, Chicago 

Fayiti, Henry B. (Henry Baird), 618-100 State street. 188 Lincoln 
Park Boulevard, Chicago 

Gaur, Mrs Isabella A. (Isabella A ), 550 Dearborn avenue, Chicago 

Grant, U.S. (Ulysses Sherman), Northwestern University. 2123 Sher- 
man avenue, Evanston 

Grimes, J. Stanley (James Stanley), 1422 Wesley avenue, Evanston 

Hacar, John M. (John McKim), The Rookery, 217 La Salle street. 
5053 Washington avenue, Chicago 

Harper, William R. (William Rainey), The University of Chicago. 
59 street and Lexington avenue, Chicago 

Harnaway, F. B. (F B ), Rochelle 

Hivpesranp, Wm. R. (William Richard), 97 Washington street. 1509 
Wolfram street, Chicago 


30 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Horsrook, Florence, Forestville School, Chicago 

Howe, Edw. G. (Edward Gardnier), 1004 S. Mathews avenue, Urbana 

Hupparp, H. M. (Henry Mascarene), 72 East Lake street. 205 Goethe 
street, Chicago 

Hun, Robert W. (Robert Woolston), 1121 The Rookery. 614 East 
Division street, Chicago 

Humpureys, Henry H. (Henry Hollingsworth), u.s. a., Highland Park, 
Lake county 

Ippines, Joseph P. (Joseph Paxson), University of Chicago. 5730 Wooa- 
lawn avenue, Chicago 

Jacopson, John, 362 West Erie street, Chicago 

JoHnson, Miss Isabel (Ruth Isabel), 215 East 42 street, Chicago 

Kenna, E. D. (Edward Dudley), 77 Jackson st. 46 Astor st., Chicago 

Lorenz, Frederick A. (Frederick Alexander), 315-321 Wabash avenue. 
5733 Kimbark avenue, Chicago 

Lowe, John W. (John Williamson), 175 Dearborn street. Union Club, 
12 Washington place, Chicago 

Lowry, C. D. (C D—), Ass’t Supt., Board of Education, Chicago 

McCowen, Mary (Mary Taylor), Bd. of Educat’n. 6550 Yale ave., Chicago 

Mann, C. E. (C H—), St Charles 

Maxson, O. P. (Orrin Prescott), 323 West street, Waukegan 

Mrap, Daniel W. (Daniel Webster), 605 First National Bank Building. 
234 South Park avenue, Austin Post-Office, Chicago 

Murrett, Victor A. G. (Victor Alphonso George), 804 Ashland block. 
6757 Parnell street, Chicago 

Oxtney, Chas. F. (Charles F ), 148 Ohio street, Chicago 

Patten, Henry J. (Henry J——), Rooms 51-52, Board of Trade. 1851 
Chicago avenue, Kvanston 

Prrt, Charles Emerson, 5817 Madison avenue, Chicago 

Perry, Thomas O. (Thomas Osborne), 1025 Park avenue, Chicago 

Puitiies, Dr W. A. (W—— A ), 1711 Hinman avenue, Evanston 

PimpHo, A. (August Ernst), 6 Madison st. 42 North Grove pl., Chicago 

Prarcer, Wm. E. (William Emilius), Township High School. 316 South 
Park street, Streator 

Ricknr, N. Clifford (Nathan Clifford), Engineering Hall, University of 
Illinois. 612 West Green street, Urbana 

Ripetry, D. C. (Douglas Clay), Homan avenue and 18 street. 5945 
Ontario street, Chicago 

Runnetts, Mrs John S. (John § ), 593 N. State street, Chicago 

Sauispury, Rollin D. (Rollin D——), University of Chicago. 5730 
Woodlawn avenue, Chicago 

ScHopincer, John J. (John James), 4670 Lake avenue, Chicago. Mor- 
gan Park 

Seppon, James A. (James A——), 906 Security Building, Chicago 


ILLINOIS 31 


SxirF, Frederick J. V. (Frederick James Volney), Field Columbian 
Museum, Chicago 

SmivuH, Mrs Emmeline L. (Emmeline Lukens), 19 Janssen ave., Chicago 

Surrx, Syl. T. (Sylvester Tunnicliff), Chicago Club, 200 Michigan ave- 
nue.- 4717 Kenwood avenue 

Snow, Herman W. (Herman Walderford), Bank of Sheldon. 488 East 
Court street, Kankakee 

Spruit, C. (Cornelius), Illinois School for Deaf. 1106 La Fayette avenue, 
Jacksonville 

Stoner, George Frederick, Board of Trade, Chicago 

Uppen, J. A. (Johan August), Augustana College, cor. 38 street and 7 
avenue. 1000 38 street, Rock Island 

Unimann, Wm. B. (William Bell), Corner 2 and Park streets, St Charles 

Van Scuatck, Miss Ellen, Highland Park 

Waener, Col. Arthur L. (Arthur Lockwood), a. A. G., U. s. A., Head- 
quarters Department of the Lakes, Chicago 

Watz, F. J. (Ferdinand Jackson), U. 8. Weather Bureau, Auditorium 
Tower. 916 Pullman Bldg., cor. Adams st. and Mich. ave., Chicago 

West, Frederick T. (Frederick Thomas), 157-159 La Salle street. 613 
Division street, Chicago 

Warre, Trumbull, 1458 Wilson avenue, Chicago” 

Wircox, Timothy E. (Timothy Erastus), u.s. a., Pullman Bldg., Chicago 

Witxins, Prof. George 8., Auditorium Building, Chicago 

Wuson, William J. (William Joseph), 1621 Masonic Temple. 5822 
Calumet avenue, Chicago 

Wiruerow, Mrs T. F., 500 Schiller street, Chicago 

Woop, L. H. (Leslie Henry), 5747 Drexel avenue, Hyde Park, Chicago 


INDIANA 


Burrier, Amos W. (Amos William), Room 52, State House, Indianapolis. 
52 Downey avenue, Irvington 

Buiyrue, W. T. (William Thomas), 41 South Pennsylvania street. The 
Meridian, 1 Michigan street, Indianapolis 

Carr, J. W. (John Wesley), High School Bldg. 4389 W. 11 st., Anderson 

Cooper, Chas. M. (Charles Marion), 243 Kast Washington street. The 
St Clair, 109 West St Clair street, Indianapolis 

CuLBertson, Glenn, Hanover College, Hanover 

Duncan, W. C. (Washington Columbus), 408 Washington street. 1104 
Hutchins avenue, Columbus 

EigenMann, Carl H. (Carl H——), Indiana University. 630 Atwater 
avenue, Bloomington 

Evans, 8. G. (S G ), 211 Main street, Evansville 

Husparp, Lucius, Room 8, Oliver Opera House. 117 Hast Madison 
street, South Bend 


32 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Jounson, Richard O. (Richard Otto), Supt. State School for the Deaf, 
Indianapolis - 

Marsters, V. F. (V—— F—., Bloomington 

Megs, C. L. (C—— L—), Terra Haute 

Sweeney, Zachary T. (Zachary T——), Commissioner of Fisheries and 
Game for Indiana, Columbus 

Taytor, F. B. (Frank Bursley), 2905 Fairfield avenue, Fort Wayne 

Watpo, C. A. (Clarence Abiathar), Purdue University. 113 S. 9 street, 
La Fayette 


INDIAN TERRITORY 


Bonp, R. I. (R I ), Hartshorne 
Harper, Dr R. H. (Robert Henry), Afton 


IOWA 


Anpberson, F, P. (F—— P——), Epworth 

Barnes, Rey Frank G. (Frank G ), Epworth Seminary, Epworth 

Bryer, 8. W. (Samuel Walker), Iowa State College, Ames 

CALVIN, Samuel, 522 N. Clinton street, Iowa City 

CuHar.es, Jno. H. (John Herr), 721 Pierce street, Sioux City 

CHITTENDEN, H. M. (Hiram Martin), 511 13 street, Sioux City 

Cownig, John, The Capitol. 831 West 4 street, Des Moines 

Heaty, G. B., Sioux City 

Hoyt, Dr Frank C., Hospital for Insane. Mt. Pleasant 

Kyupsen, Grace W. (Grace Whiting), State Normal School. 521 Clay 
street, Cedar Falls 

LARRABEE, William, Clermont 

Leonarp, A. G. (Arthur Gray), Lowa Geological Survey. 1522 9 street, 
Des Moines 

Norton, W. M. (William Harmon), Mt Vernon 

Powers, H. C. (Henry Clay), Hedge’s Station, Sioux City 

PurssELu, U. G. (Ulysses G——), Government Building. 215 9 street, 
Sioux City 

Putnam, W. C. (William Clement), 213 Main street. 2013 Brady street, 
Davenport 

RvueteE, Otto M. (Otto Moyer), 18. Locust st. 721 Bluff st., Dubuque 

Sager, John R. (John Randall), U.S. Weather Bureau. 1415 24 street, 
Des Moines 

SuHerier, Julius M. (Julius Mason), Post-Office Building. Kemper 
Hall, cor. Main and 11 streets, Davenport 

Sumek, Prof. B., lowa City 

Srrvens, W. M. (William Myron), 1911 Pierce street, Sioux City 


KANSAS 33 


KANSAS 


Anperson, T. J. (Thomas Jefferson), 627 Kansas avenue. 215 Clay 
street, Topeka 

Austin, Edwin A. (Edwin Atlee), 107 East 6 ave. 913 Clay st., Topeka 

GrimsLey, G. P. (George Perry), Washburn College, Topeka 

Haworru, Erasmus, University of Kansas. 1503 Massachusetts street, 
Lawrence 

Hepner, H. E., Lakin 

Jennines, T. B. (Charles Augustus Thorp Buttolph), U. 5. Weather 
Bureau Office. 324 Willow avenue, Topeka 

Kettoae, R. S. (Royal Shaw), Tucson, Arizona, Agent of Bureau of For- 
estry. Fay, Russell County 

Martin, Geo. W. (George Washington), State Capitol. 1409 Topeka 
avenue, Topeka 

Menxr, D. R. (David Ramaley), Main street, Garden City 

Mounecer, Geo. M. (George Merrick), 6 Madison st., Chicago, Ill. Eureka 

Rosrnson, A. A. (Albert Alonzo), 422 Olive street, St Louis, Mo. 900 
Tyler street, Topeka 

Russet, W. G. (William Gardner), Russell 

Smyru, B. B. (Bernard Bryan), State Capitol. 3809 W. 5 street, Topeka 

Watson, Carrie M. (Carrie M——), University of Kansas, Lawrence 

Wiper, E. (Edward), Jackson and 9 sts. 1021 Harrison st., Topeka 


KENTUCKY 


Brownett, H. G. (Harry Gault), 1900 Brook street. 106 W. Oak street, 
Louisville 

Burk, W. E. (William Emmett), Male High School. 1036 Highland 
avenue, Louisville 

Coox, Fred W. (Fred W——), 108 E. Kentucky street, Louisville 

Cox, L. M. (L M——), Ener. and Arch. Club, Louisville 

GrinstEaD, W. C. (William Campbell), corner Maple and Walnut sts., 
Danville 

Mark, E. H. (Edgar Huston),514 West Walnut street. The Rossmore, 
748-752 4 avenue, Louisville 

Rocerrs, Augustus, Kentucky School for the Deaf, Danville 

Waricut, Miss Carrie M. (Caroline McLean), Semple Collegiate School, 
1225-1227 4 avenue. 918 1 street, Louisville 


LOUISIANA 


Derpy, G. McC. (George McClellan), 8232 Prytania street. 14 Audubon 
place, New Orleans 
Knapp, S. A. (Seaman Ashel), 527 Pujo street, Lake Charles 


34 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Morean, Prof. H. A. (H—— A——), Baton Rouge 

Rose, E. C. (Emerson Clarence), Leland University, 7013 St Charles ave- 
nue, New Orleans 

ScorreLp, Miss Margaret, 304 McNeil street, Shreveport 


MAINE 


Berry, Alford H. (Alford H——), Portland 

Boru, Adolph C. (Adolph C——), U.S. Engineer’s Office. Portland 

Bay.ry, W. S. (William Shirley), Colby College, Waterville 

Burrowes, Francis S. (Francis S——), U. S. Engineer’s Office, Portland 

Cary, Austin, Brunswick 

Cieaves, Henry B. (Henry Bradstreet), 120 Exchange street. Congress 
Square Hotel, 579 Congress street, Portland 

Dow, Hon. Fred. N., 12 Monument square, Portland A 

FrssenpvEN, Francis, 513 Exchange street. 73 Deering street, Portland 

Foxpes, Charles S. (Charles Scott), 106-112 Commercial street. 72 Emery 
street, Portland 

Hii, W. Scott (Winfield Scott), 154 State street, Augusta 

Hoy, Chas. C. (Charles Chamberlain), St Louis near Boyle avenue. 
“Beachmere,” Ogunquit, York county 

Lee, Leslie A. (Leslie Alexander), Bowdoin College. 38 Bath street, 
Brunswick 

Mannina, Prentice C. (P—— C——), 129-131 Middle street. Cumber- 
land Mills, Main street, box 1115, Portland 

Merritt, Fullerton, 19 State street. 166 Union street, Bangor 

Moron, Eliza H. (Eliza Happy), 1377 Washington avenue. ‘“ The 
Cedars,” 365 Allen avenue, North Deering 

O’Donoeuur, D. OC. (Daniel O’Connell), 537 Congress street. 75 Emery 
street, Portland 

Payson, C.H. (Charles Henry),32 Exchangest. 166 Vaughan st., Portland 

Payson, Geo. S. (George Shipman), 32 Exchange street. 30 Mellen 
street, Portland 

Prentiss, Henry M. (Henry Mellen), 52 Broad st. 18 Jefferson st., Bangor 

Rost, Frederick, First National Bank, 57 Exchange street. Portland 

Scuorretp, Lieut. Gen. J. M. (John McAllister), u. s. 4., War Depart- 
ment, Washington. Bar Harbor in summer, St Augustine, Fla., 
in winter 

WeymourtH, F. E., Orono 

Wuire, S. T. (Samuel Thompson), West Paris 


MARYLAND 


Ames, J.S. (Joseph Sweetman), Johns Hopkins University. 225 W. 
Preston street, Baltimore 


MARYLAND 85 


BereianD, Maj. Eric, u. s. A., Central Savings Bank Building. 1116 N. 
Charles street, Baltimore 

Cuttps, T. S., D. D. (Thomas Spencer), Rectory, Chevy Chase 

Care, Isaac M. (Isaac Martin), Abbottstown, Baltimore 

CriarK, Wm. Bullock (William Bullock), Johns Hopkins University. 

_ 8 E. Read street, Baltimore 

Couen, Mendes, 825 N. Charles street, Baltimore 

» Doans, C. F. (Charles Francis), College Park. Hyattsville 

Doper, O. G. (Omenzo George), Naval Academy, Annapolis 

Evprey, Major F. W. (Frederick William), vu. s. a. Sandy Spring, 
Montgomery County 

Eris, Charles Manly, Trinity Corners. Elkton 

Hyans, Lt. Col. A. W. (Andrew. Wallace), u.s. N., 400 Main street, Elkton 

GoucHer, Jno. F. (John Franklin), Woman’s College. 2313 St. Paul 
street, Baltimore 

Hatstep, Dr Wm. 8, 1201 Eutaw Place, Baltimore 

Harran, Herbert, 516 Cathedral street, Baltimore 

Haruan, Homer B. (Homer Blakeslee), Office Chief of Engineers, U.S. 
Army. Washington Grove 

Harty, Prof. A. G. (Albert Gallatin), Montgomery County. Rockville 

Haynes, D. F. (David Francis), Chesapeake Pottery, Baltimore. 1715 
Park avenue, Baltimore 

Huspen, Edwin, Hastern avenue and Patuxent street, Baltimore. 731 
Colorado avenue, Tuxedo Park, Baltimore county 

Henpricxson, Prof. W. W., Naval Academy, Annapolis 

Hopy, A. B. (Albert Berthold), Hoen Building, Baltimore 

Hurp, Henry M. (Henry Mills), Johns Hopkins Hospital. 599-601 
North Broadway, Baltimore 

Jouannsen, Albert (Albert Heinrich von Kraghlungsfeldt), Johns Hop- 
kins University, Baltimore 

Kerr, Mrs Alice M. (Alice Maud), Frederick road, opp. Hilton avenue. 
“ Cherokee,” Catonsville 

Kertiy, Howard Atwood, 1418 Eutaw place. 1406 Eutaw place, Baltimore 

LenMann, G. W. (Gustavus William), 32 South street, Baltimore. ‘‘ The 
Terraces,’ Mt Washington, Baltimore county 

Lorp, Eleanor L. (Eleanor Louisa), Woman’s College of Baltimore. 
2500 St Paul street, Baltimore 

Matonr, Miss M. J. (M J——), Hyattsville 

Mriier, Benj. L. (Benjamin Leroy), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore 

Montacur, C. 8. (Calvin Swartz), Garrett Park 

Moore, Jos. T., Sandy Spring, Montgomery county 

Miutier, Louis, 47 Chamber of Commerce, Baltimore. Baltimore county 

Murray, Nicholas, Johns Hopkins University. University Club, Balti- 
more 


36 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOUIETY 


Nexson, Thos. (Thomas), 122 Prince George street, Annapolis 

O’Hara, Rev. Wm. L. (William L—), Mt. St. Mary’s P. O. 

PrerryMan, EK. B. (Elijah Barrett), Md. State Normal School. 1200 La- 
fayette avenue, Baltimore 

Rep, Harry Fielding, Johns Hopkins University. 608 Cathedral street, 
Baltimore 

Remsen, Ira, John Hopkins University. 12 E. Biddle street, Baltimore 

Rippie, Rey. D. H. (D H ), Emmitsburg 

Roacu, Dr Joseph, 611 Park avenue, Baltimore 

Rosr, Thos. E. (Thomas Ellwood), 2427 W. North avenue, Baltimore 

Rurienes, J. J. (John Joseph), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 
9 George st., Hampden, Baltimore. Permanent address, Alton, III. 

ScuMEckrstEr, L. F. (Laurence Frederick), Geological Survey, 1330 F 
street, Washington, D.C. 1620 West Lexington street, Baltimore 

Suarruck, G. B. (George Burbank), Johns Hopkins University, Balti- 
more. Sudbrook Park 

Sinz, Lieut. J. L. (J L ), U.S. S. “ Windom.” Baltimore 

Srerner, Bernard C. (Bernard Christian), Enoch Pratt Free Library, 106 
West Mulberry street. 1038 North Eutaw street, Baltimore 

Wuirs, John T. (John T ), Cumberland 

WittraMs, Mrs George Huntington, 803 Cathedral street, Baltimore 


MASSACHUSETTS 


Apvams, Brooks, 28 Court street, Boston. Quincy 

Agassiz, Hlizabeth Cary (Mrs Louis), Radcliffe College. 36 Quincy 
street, Cambridge 

ALDEN, Col. C. H. (Charles Henry), u.s. a., retired, Newtonville 

ALLEN, Hon. Charles H. (Charles Herbert), Lowell 

Auten, L. Mabel (Lucy Mabel), 23 Hudson street, Lynn 

Arms, Miss Mary KE. (Mary E ), 9 Union street, Greenfield 

Arnoux, Judge W. H. (W H—), Vineyard Haven 

Ayer, Dr James B. (James Bourne), 518 Beacon street, Boston 

Bage, Rufus M., Jr. (Rufus Mather), Brockton High School. 84 Ellis 
street, Brockton 

Barrp, Capt. Wm. (William), uv. s. a., Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology, Boston. 83 Newbury street, Boston 

Barron, Geo. H. (George Hunt), 30 Trinity place, Boston. 16 Lexing- 
ton avenue, Cambridge 

BatcHeuer, Robert, 57 Lincoln st. 55 Commonwealth ave., Boston 

Beats, Frederick H. (Frederick Hall), Worcester Academy, Worcester 

Buakg, Clarence John, 226 Marlborough street, Boston 

Brake, Francis, 125 Milk street, Boston. Weston, Auburndale P. O. 

Brake, Francis E. (Francis Everett), 95 Milk street. Hotel Bellevue, 
21 Beacon street, Boston 


MASSACHUSETTS 37 


Breck, Sam’] (Samuel), vu. s. a., retired, 50 St. Stephen street, Boston 

Burton, Alfred E. (Alfred Edgar), Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
58 Webster street, West Newton 

CaBLE, Geo. W. (George Washington), 23 Dryads’ Green, Northampton 

Cassipy, Arthur B. (Arthur Benjamin), Wollaston 

CHAMBERLAIN, Alexander F. (Alexander Francis), Clark University. 
12 Shirley street, Worcester 

CuHanpter, F. W. (Francis Ward), Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
195 Marlborough street, Boston 

CrarKk, Charles N. (Charles Nathaniel), 124 Main street. 207 South 
street, Northampton 

Cxiark, John 8S. (John Spencer), 120 Boylston st. 64 Pinckney st., Boston. 

Copp, J. Storer (J Storer), President Northampton Education Society, 
Northampton 

ConpatrH, Laura A. (Laura Anne), Central Street Grammar School. 
541 State street, Springfield 

Conant, Edward EK. (Edward E ), Lake Pleasant 

Cook, Candace, Fowler School, Sprague street. 506 June st., Fall River 

Curtis, George Carroll, 64 Crawford street, Boston 

Dakin, Arthur H. (Arthur Hazard), 30 Court street. 873 Commonwealth 
avenue, Boston 

Danrortu, G. H. (George Henry), 45 High street, Greenfield 

Davis, A. McF. (Andrew McFarland), 10 Appleton street, Cambridge 

Davis, W. M. (William Morris), Geol. Museum, Harvard University. 
17 Francis avenue, Cambridge 

Dawes, Miss Anna L. (Anna Laurens), 15 Elm street, Pittsfield 

Day, Mrs Mary Lowell (Mrs C Atwater), P. O. address, care Boston 
Safe Deposit Co., 87 Milk street, Boston 

Dr Kats, Courtenay, San Fernando, Dgo., Mexico. 80 Pond street, 
Jamaica Plain, Boston 

Dicxryson, Marquis F. (Marquis Fayette), 53 State st., Boston. Brookline 

Doanz, Geo. EH. (George Emerson), 12 8. Main street. 43 Oak street, 
Middleboro 

Dor, Nathan Haskell, 18 Boylston street. ‘“ Hedgecote,” Glen road, 
Jamaica Plain, Boston 

Drake, Mrs Louis 8. (Laura Bell), 37 Evergreen avenue, Auburndale 

Hastman, C. R. (Charles Rochester), Museum of Comparative Zodélogy. 
304 Brookline street, Cambridge 

Haston, Norman 8. (Norman Salisbury), George B. Stone School, Globe 
street. 458 High street, Fall River 

Extor, Charles W. (Charles William), 5 University Hall. 17 Quincy 
street, Cambridge. 

Exuis, Annie C. (Annie Claflin), 38 Elm road, Newtonville 

Emerson, B. K. (Benjamin Kendall), Department of Geology, Amherst 
College. 21 Northampton road, Amherst 


38 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 

Eneier, Edmund A. (Edmund Arthur), Worcester Polytechnic Institute. 
11 Boynton street, Worcester 

FauLkner, Dr George, 29 Greenough ave., Jamaica Plain, Boston 

Fay, Charles E. (Charles Ernest), Tufts’ College. 92 Professors row, 
Tufts’ College 

Fre.p, William L.W. (William Lusk Webster), Milton Academy. Milton 

Fisumr, Miss B. F. (# ai ), Wellesley College, Wellesley 

Forses, W. H., 233 Chestnut avenue, Jamaica Plain 

Futter, Sarah, 178 Newbury street, Boston. Concord street, Newton 
Lower Falls 

FursisuH, M. I. (Mauran Irving), Attleboro Falls 

Frye, Alexis E., 52 Pinckney street, Boston 1728 Mass. ave., D. C. 

Gack, Mabel Carleton, 50 Pearl street, Worcester 

Ganona, William F. (William Francis), Smith College. 11 Massasoit 
street, Northampton 

Garpner, John L. (John Lowell), 51 Commonwealth avenue, Boston 

Garrett, H. G. (H G ), Taunton 

GorssMANN, Charles A. (Charles Anthony), Agricultural College, Amherst 

GREEN, Samuel Swett, Free Public Library. 12 Harvard st., Worcester 

GREENE, James D. (James Diman), 18 Chase street, Newton Center 

GriswoLb, L. S. (Leon Stacy), 238 Boston street, Dorchester 

Grosvenor, Prof. Edwin A., Amherst 

GuLutver, F. P. (Frederic Putnam), St. Mark’s School, Southboro 

Hats, Richard A. (Richard Augustus), Essex Company, 80 Salem street, 
Lawrence 

Hatt, Prof. G. Stanley, Clark University, Worcester 

Hamttn, Charles 8. (Charles Sumner), Ames Building. 2 Raleigh street, 
Boston 

Hammonp, John C. (John Chester), 59 Main street. 222 Elm street, 
Northampton 

Harpy, Alpheus H. (Alpheus Holmes), 1151 Tremont Building. 445 
Beacon street, Boston 

Hart, Albert Bushnell, 15 Appian Way, Cambridge 

Hart, Francis R. (Francis Russell), Ames Building, Boston. Milton 

Harwoop, Herbert J. (Herbert Joseph), 220 Devonshire street, Boston. 
Littleton, Middlesex County 

Haruaway, Geo. A. (George Adelbert), corner Harvard and Portland 
streets. 12 Francis avenue, Cambridge 

Haypen, John EH. V. (John Ellerton Vassall), 89 Court street, Boston. 

Hazen, Charles Downer, Smith College, Northampton 
Brush Hill road, Milton. P. O. address (residence), Mattapan 

Hearp, Augustine, care T. Frank Noonan, 50 State st., Boston 

Hearn, D.C. (Daniel Collamore), 110 Boylston street, Boston. 147 
Highland avenue, Newtonville 


+ 


MASSACHUSETTS 39 


Hoce, Wm. Jas. (William James), Auburn. 54 Elm street, Worcester 

Ho.pen, Luther L. (Luther Loud), 296 Washington street, Boston. 9 St 
John street, Jamaica Plain 

Houmes, Frederic H. (Frederic Harper), Hyannis State Normal School, 
North street, Hyannis 

Horsrorp, Miss Cornelia (Cornelia Conway Felton), 27 Craigie street, 
Cambridge 

Hosmer, Ralph §. (Ralph Sheldon), Roxbury 

Hovey, Horace C. (Horace Carter), 60 High street, Newburyport 

Howe, Mrs Arabella, 261 Beacon street, Boston 

Howe tt, Selah, Boston Latin School, Warren avenue, Boston. 9 Kirk 
street, West Roxbury 

Husparp, Chas. Eustis (Charles Eustis), 28 State street, Boston. 150 
Brattle street, Cambridge 

Husparp, Dr Frank A. (Frank Allen), 157 High street, Taunton 

Hupparp, G. G. (G G ), Cambridge 

Husparp. Jas. M. (James Mascarene), 201 Columbus avenue. 3882 
Marlboro street, Boston 

Hupearp, Paul M. (Paul Masearene), 925 Exchange Building, 53 State 
street. 3882 Marlborough street, Boston 

Hutt, Jas. W. (James Wells), 3 North st. 40 Appleton ave., Pittsfield 

Hunxine, A. W. (Arthur Ward), 374 Stevens street, Lowell 

Huxtry, Henry Minor, Peabody Museum. 401 Craigie Hall, Cambridge 

JACKMAN, Prof. Jas. V. (James V——), 183 Lakeside avenue, Marlboro 

Jaccar, T. A., Jr. (Thomas Augustus); Museum of Geology. Ware 
Hall 15, Harvard street, Cambridge 

Kernnepy, Geo. G. (George Golding), Readville 

Kennepy, Harris, 286 Warren street, Roxbury. Blue Hill avenue and 
Brush Hill road, Milton 

Kine, Charles F. (Charles Francis), Dearborn School. 107 Elm Hill 
avenue, Boston 

KNEELAND, F. N. (Frederick Newton), 8 Paradise road, Northampton 

Lakeman, Miss A. M. (Annie Maria), Principal Lane Grammar School. 
9 Andrews street, Gloucester 

Lanza, Gaetano, Mass. Inst. of Technology. 22 West Cedar st., Boston 

Lawrencr, Wm. H.C. (William Hathaway Clark), Gardner st., Nantucket 

Litey, Sarah M. (Sarah M ), 048 4th street, South Boston 

Lixcoun, Mary L. (Mary L ), Rockport 

Lirrir, A. D. (Arthur Dehon), 7 Exchange place, Boston. 45 Warren 
street, Brookline 

LivrLeFriexp, George EH. (George Emery), 67 Cornhill, Boston. 16 Chester 
street, Cambridge 

Lorp, Dr EK. C. E. (E C— E—.), Fairfax, Cambridge 

Lorine, Robert, 192 Devonshire street, Boston 


40 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


McCanpuisH, John, 26 Summer st. 239 West Newton st., Boston 

May, Benj. D. (Benjamin D ), Principal Hale High School, Stow 

Metiyer, Mary C. (Mary C——), 80 Regent street, Roxbury 

MenpenuHatt, T. C. (Thomas Corwin), Worcester 

Menpvum, Lydia, 184 Franklin street, Melrose Highlands 

Merriman, Rev. Dr D. (D ), 95 Irving street, Cambridge 

Mitrer, R. T., Jr. (R T—),156 Tremont st. 125 Beacon st., Boston 

Monroe, WillS. (Will Seymour), State Normal School, 59-63 Court street. 

75 Court street, Westfield 

Morss, Everett, 77 Cornhill. 303 Marlboro street, Boston 

Murpocs, F. F. (F F ), North Adams 

Nasu, Louis P. (Louis Philip), 121 Elm street. Morgan street, Holyoke 

Neirert, W. W. (William Washington), Weather Bureau. The Oxford, 
146 Oxford street, Cambridge 

Nitrs, Wm. H. (William Harmon), Massachusetts Institute of Technol- 
ogy, 30 Trinity pl. Copley Square Hotel, Huntington ave., Boston 

O’Brren, Elizabeth, 2280 Massachusetts avenue, Cambridge 

OumsteED, Frederick Law, Jr., Brookline 

Oscoop, Edward L. (Edward L—), 221 Beacon street, Boston 

Parker, Edmund M. (Edmund Morley), 89 State street, Boston. 63 
Sparks street, Cambridge 

Parker, Walter 8. (Walter Scott), Sch. Com. Rooms, Mason street, Bos- 

ton. Walnut Knoll, Reading 

Parkinson, Wm. D. (William Dwight), 3 Moody street. 103 Lexington 
street, Waltham 

Prcx, Annie 8. (Annie S——), Redpath Lyceum Bureau, 120 Tremont 
street, Boston 

PickeRINnG, Edward C. (Edward Charles), The Observatory, Cambridge 

Pinispury, Lt. Comdr. J. E. (J E—-), 50 Commonwealth avenue, 
Boston 

Pork, Dr C. Augusta (Caroline Augusta), 163 Newbury street, Boston 

Porter, Dwight, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. 149 
Hawthorne street, Malden 

PousnanD, F. G. (Frederic Grahame), Old Colony Trust Company, Ames 
Building, Boston. 263 Lafayette street, Salem 

Pratt, Miss Emma A. (Emma A——), 6 Ashland street, Worcester 

Pray, Benj. 8. (Benj. 5 ), 53 State street, Boston 

Pray, James Sturgis, cor. Walnut and Warren streets, Brookline. The 
Jarvis, 27 Everett street, Cambridge 

PritcHarpD, Myron T. (Myron T ), 125 School street, Roxbury 

Prircnert, Henry S. (Henry Smith), Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology. 3837 Marlboro street, Boston 

REDFIELD, Julia W. (Julia Wallace), 290 South street, Pittsfield 

Rice, A. Hamilton (Alexander Hamilton), Harvard Medical School. 
389 Beacon street, Boston 


MASSACHUSETTS 41 


Ricwarps. Mrs Ellen H. (Ellen Henrietta Swallow), Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology, 525 Boylston st. 32 Eliot st., Jamaica Plain 

Ricuarps, Ralph W. (Ralph Webster), Tufts College. 120 Curtis street, 
West Somerville 

Roszsins, A. G. (Arthur Graham), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
Boston. 60 Webster street, West Newton 

Rosrnson, Albert G. (Albert Gardner), Buckland 

Rorcu, A. Lawrence (Abbott Lawrence), Blue Hill Observatory, Hyde 
Park. 285 Commonwealth avenue, Boston 

Russet, Frank, Harvard University, Cambridge 

Sargent, C. 8. (Charles Sprague), Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain- 
Brookline 

Sawyer, Edward, 60 Congress street, Boston. Bellevue street, Newton 

Sawyer, J. H. J— H ), Easthampton 

Sawyer, W. H. (William Henry), 66 Lincoln street. 107 Lincoln street, 
Worcester 

ScupprEr, Sam. H. (Samuel Hubbard), Cambridge 

SuHarptes. 8. P. (Stephen Paschall), Boston. 22 Concord ave., Cambridge 

SHarruck, Horace B. (Horace Bowditch), 50 Central street. 3866 Ando- 
ver street, Lowell 

Smumons, John F. (John Franklin), 1010 Exchange Building, 53 State 
street, Boston. Hanover. P. O. address, “Assinippi” 

Srynorr, Chas. P. (Charles Peter), State Normal School. Bridgewater 

Smruig, Edw. $. (Edward Stetson), 429 Center st. 36 Maple ave., Newton 

Smrrx, Miss J. Angelina (J—— Angelina), Hopedale 

Snyper, W. H. (William Henry), Academy. 125 Pa. ave., Worcester 

Spencer, W. H. (William Henry), D.D.S.,188 Main street. 386 Pomeroy 
terrace, Northampton 

Sranwoop, Edward, 201 Columbus ave., Boston. 76 High st., Brookline 

STERRETT, J. R. S. J-—— R S) ), Amherst 

Stevens, M. T. (Moses Tyler), North Andover 

Srrvenson, Holland Newton, Commander, U.S. Navy, Pittsfield 

Sronn, James S. (James Savage), 234 Marlborough street. Boston 

Sunttyan, Richard, 27 Kibby street. 35 Brimmer street, Boston 

Sunicurasr, Prof. C. de (C—— de), Harvard University, Cambridge 

Swatn, George F. (George Fillmore), Massachusetts Institute of Tech 
nology. 435 Marlboro street, Boston 

Tart, Mrs Alphonso, Elm street, Millbury 

TuHompson, Miss Mary H. (Mary H ), 88 Rutland square, Boston 

Tuomson, Elihu, General Electric Co., Center street, Lynn. 22 Monu- 
ment avenue, Swampscott 

TrtpeEn, Charles J. (Charles J——), P. O. Box 671, Milton 

Tinetey, Xenophon D. (Xenophon Demosthenes), 13 Hampden street, 
Gloucester 

4 


42 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


TownseEnD, H. B. (Edward Britton), 27 Kibby street, Boston. Hawthorn 
road, Brookline 

TruESDELL, Waldo B. (Waldo Bromley), Holden 

TuckERMAN, Charles 8. (Charles Sanders), 1 Court street. 201 Bay State 
road, Boston 

W apuin, Horace G. (Horace Greeley), State House, Boston. 118 Woburn 
street, Reading 

Warp, Robert De C. (Robert De Courcy), Harvard University, Cambridge 

Waters, Isabel H. (Isabel Holman), Millbury 

Watson, Thomas A. (Thomas Augustus), Howard street, Quincy. 
Quincy avenue, Hast Bramtree 

Wesper, A. B. (A—— B ), Cambridge 

Weeks, John W. (John W ), 97 Valentine street, West Newton 

We.imaAN, Hiller C. (Hiller Crowell),City Library Association, Springfield 

Wetts, Louisa A. (Louisa Appleton),45 Commonwealth avenue, Boston 

Wueerter, Leonard, 28 Elm street, Worcester 

Waitin, Mrs John C. (John C ), Whitinsville 

Wuittne, 8. B. (Stephen Betts), 11 Ware street, Cambridge 

Wuitr, Miss Abbie M. (Abbie M ), Farnumsville 

Wiper, Harris H. (Harris Hawthorne), Zodlogical Laboratory, Smith 
College, Dryads Green, Northampton 

Witper, Katherine L. (Katherine Larkin), Elm Hill School, Barre 

Wiruiston, A. Lyman (Asahel Lyman), cor. Main and King streets. 
39 Round Hill, Northampton 

Wirson, Wm. Power (William Power), 506 Exchange Building, 53 State 
street. 25 Granby street, Boston 

Winber, John W. (John White), 186 Congress street, Boston. 78 High 
street, Newburyport 

Woop, P. W. (Pliny Williams), 66 Lincoln st. 9 Shattuck st., Worcester 

Woops, Henry, 33 Summer street, Boston 

Woops, Rev. Robt. M. (Robert McEwen), Hatfield 

Woopman, J. Edmund (Joseph Edmund), University Museum, Harvard 
University, Oxford street. 56 Frost street, North Cambridge. 

Woopwarp, Frank EF. (Frank Ernest), 36 Union street, Boston. 93 
Rockland avenue, Malden 

Woopworrna, J. B. (Jay Backus), Harvard University. 24 Langdon 
street, Cambridge 

Yate, Caroline A. (Caroline Ardelia), Clarke School, Round Hill, North- 
ampton 


MICHIGAN 


Armsrronc, Miss May C., 472 West High street, Detroit 
Brxspy, Major W. H. (William Herbert), u.s. a., Corps of Engineers, 
U.S. Engineer Office, Detroit 


MICHIGAN 43 


Gregory, William M. (William Mumford), Jonesville 

Haske tt, H. EH. (Eugene Elwin), 71 Griswold st. 62 Bagg st., Detroit 

Hoop, O. P. (Ozni Porter), Mich. Coll. of Mines. Hubbel st., Houghton 

JmFFERSON, Mark 8. W. (Mark Sylvester William), State Normal Col- 
lege. 14 Normal street, Ypsilanti 

Jopuine, J. H. (James Hdmund), Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co., Ishpeming. 
Marquette 

Lang, Alfred C. (Alfred Church), 503 Hollister Block. 408 Grand street 

§., Lansing 

Leverett, Frank, 312 North Thayer street, Ann Arbor 

Marrinpate, W. C., Detroit 

ParMELEE, H. P. (Horatio Plum), 503 Mich. Trust Bldg., corner Ottawa 
and Pearl streets. 594 Cherry street, Grand Rapids 

Perrer, Wm. H. (William Henry), University of Michigan. 554 Thomp- 
son street, Ann Arbor 

RussEt1, Israel C. (Israel Cook), 1703 Hill street, Ann Arbor 

ScHNEIDER, C. F. (Charles Fred), U. 8. Weather Bureau. 741 Ionia st. 
W., Lansing 

West, P. C. F. (P—— C—— F——), Calumet 


MINNESOTA 


Auten, W. P. (William Prescott), 711 Lincoln avenue, St Paul - 

Berkey, Charles P. (Charles Peter), University of Minnesota. 1601 
7 street southeast, Minneapolis 

Boynton, Frances L. (Frances Laura), corner Second and Ramsey sts. 
Hastings, Dakota county 

Brabtey, Capt. John J. (John Jewsbury), 14th Inf., Fort Snelling 

Brower, Hon. J. V. (Jacob Vradenberg), Chairman Museum Commit- 
tee Minnesota Historical Society, St Paul 

Cox, Ulysses O. (Ulysses Orange), State Normal School, 5 street. 825 
Clark street, Mankato 

Cross, Judson Newell, 600 New York Life Building. Minneapolis 

GatLuaRD, D. D. (David Du Bose), Providence Building. 1418 Kast 
Superior street, Duluth 

GossmAn, Leo A. (Leo Andrew), Spring Valley 

Green, Samuel B. (Samuel Bowdlear), University of Minnesota, St 
Anthony Park. 2095 Dooley avenue, St Paul 

Hatt, C. W. (Christopher Webber), University of Minnesota. 803 Uni- 
versity avenue southeast, Minneapolis 

Hoxtn, R. L. (Richard Leveridge), U. S. Engineers’ Office. 55 Western 
avenue, St Paul 

KLErBeRGER, Geo. R. (George Reinard), State Normal School. 2035. 
4 street, St Cloud 


44 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Lockxwoop, Major D. W. (D W ), St Paul 

Puexps, Wm. F. (William Franklin), 317 Manhattan Bldg., St Paul 

ReEpFIELD, Wm. W. (William Wallace), Room 8, City Hall. 2637 Port- 
land avenue, Minneapolis 

Swenson, Harold, New London 

Upuam, Warren, Secretary Minnesota Historical Society. 655 Central 
park, St Paul 

Wattacr, G. W. (Ga—— W—-), 1721 E. 1 street, Duluth 


MISSISSIPPI 


Dasnny, T. G. (Thomas Gregory), Office Levee Board. Mosby Hotel, 
Clarksdale 

Dosyns, J. R. (John Robert), 718 North State street, Jackson — 

Stinson, J. L. J L—), Agricultural College 


MISSOURI 


Anperson, R. L. (Robert Lee), Government Bldg.,6 and Broadway. 313 
Bird street, Hannibal 

Brirts, Dr Jno. H. (John Henry), 114 East Franklin street. 127 East 
Franklin street, Clinton : 

BroaDHEAD, Prof. G. C. (G C—), 701 South 5 street. Columbia 

CARPENTER, Geo. O. (George Oliver), Clarke ave. and 10 st., St Louis 

Carr, Brig. Gen. E. A. (Kugene Asa), u.s. A., St Louis. Care Adjutant 
General, Washington, D. C. 

Casry, Major Thos. L. (Thomas Lincoln), Post Office Drawer 71, St Louis 

CHAUVENET, Louis, 5501 Chamberlain avenue, St Louis 

Cxussuck, Levi, 721 Olive street. 4147 Russell avenne, St Louis 

FarrpBanks, J. (Jonathan), corner Center and Jefferson streets. Corner 
Sherman and Center streets, Springfield 

Graves, Porter, Central High School, 11 and Locust streets. 717 Elm- 
wood avenue, Kansas City 

Guy, Wm. E. (William Evans), 72 Laclede Building. 4380 Westmin- 
ster place, St Louis 

Hacerman, James, Wainwright Building. 3654 Pine street, St Louis 

Hazen, John S. (John Suel), Springfield, Mo., Boonville and Brower. 
876 N. Jefferson 

Trisu, H. C. (Henry Clay), Mo. Botanical Garden, 1920 Old Manchester 
road, St Louis 

Lapp, Geo. E. (George Edgar), Missouri School of Mines, Rolla 

Lercuton, Geo. B. (George Bridge), Monadnock, N. H., and St Louis 

Marsot, C. F. (C—— F ), University of Missouri. Columbia 

Mermop, Mrs Augustus 8. (Mary E——), Broadway and Locust, St 
Louis. Kirkwood 


MISSOURI 45 


Morrison, G. B. (Gilbert Burnet), 15 and Forest streets. 2510 Perry 
avenue, Kansas City 

Nixon, Dr J. H. (John Howard), 314 St Louis street, Springfield 

Ocxrrson, J. A. (John Augustus), 122 N.7 st. 4217 Washington ave. 

Owen, Miss Luella A. (Luella Agnes), 306 North 9 street, St Joseph 

Perkins, A. T. (Albert Thompson), 107 Franklin avenue. 4392 Olive 
street, St Louis 

Peterson, C. A. (Cyrus Asbury), 816 Olivestreet. 8 Shaw place, St Louis 

Sampson, F. A. (Francis Asbury), Columbia. Sedalia 

ScHRENK, Hermann yon, Shaw School of Botany. 5227 Washington 
avenue, St Louis 

Sepewick, Lee M. (Lee M ), Beals Building, Kansas City 

SHEPARD, Edward M. (Edward Martin), Drury College. 1403 Benton 
avenue, Springfield 

Simmons, W. D. (Wallace Delafield), Simmon’s Hardward Company, 
9 and Spruce streets. 4638 Berlin avenue, St Louis 

Smurexkins, Allan T. (Allan Thacher), 510 Pine street. 3700 Westminster 
place, St Louis 

Stocum, H. N. (Ebenezer N——), Frisco System R. R. 806 Mt Vernon 
street, Springfield 

Stuper, Dr Greenfield, 2912 Pine street, St Louis 

Squire, Willis C. (Willis Clifton), Mechanical Department Offices, Frisco 
System. 817 Benton avenue, Springfield 

Taytor, F. W. (Frederic William), World’s Fair. 5570 Cabanne ave- 
nue, St Louis 

TuacuHer, Arthur, Roe Bldg., 510 Pine st. 4804 Wash’n ave., St Louis 

Tirtmann, H. H. (H H , 3726 Washington Boulevard, St Louis 

Torppen, Dr H. (Hugo), 3117-3119 S. 7 st. 1923 Sidney st., St Louis 

TrELEASE, Wm. (William), Missouri Botanical Garden, St Louis 

Vervins, Alfred de, 3923 Delmar Boulevard, St Louis 

Weesrer, Elma J. (Elma Josephine), 15 and Campbell, Hamilton 
School. 1205 Hast 31 street, Kansas City 

Winstow, Arthur, 104 West 9 street, Kansas City 

Woopwakrp, Calvin M. (Calvin M ), Washington University, St Louis 


MONTANA 


Bocrrt, J. V. (J—— V——), Bozeman 

Brayton, H. M. (H M——, Billings 

Browne, Arthur B. (Arthur B——), Bearmouth 

Burret, Alexander, Marysville 

CuisHoiM, O. P. (O—— P ), Bozeman 

Ciements, Mrs A. B. (A B—.), Helena 

Dayiss, John F. (John Francis), Silver Bow Blk., 10 W. Granite st., Butte 


46 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Exrop, Morton J. (Morton John), Univ. Mont., 205 E. 5 st. S., Missoula 

GitLerrr, Edward, Billings 

GoovaLe, C. W. (Charles Warren), Lewisohn Bldg. 900 W. Quartz st., 
Butte 

LatrD, Oliver F. (Oliver F ), Butte 

Moser, Gust, Forest Supervisor, Ovando 

Mumerus, Dan. P.(Daniel Perrin),U. S.Surveyor General’s Office, Helena. 
Wolsey, Meagher county 

Newton, T. P. (T—— P ), Butte 

Reap, Wm. (William), Columbia Falls 

Rogerson, James M. (James Monroe), 31 West Main street. 1 Dell 


Place, Bozeman 
Russet, J. R. (James Richard), Butte Free Public Library. 849 West 


Quartz street, Butte 
Sizer, F. L. (Frank Leonard), Butte. Helena 
Stewart, Benj. D. (Benjamin Duane), 508 East Pine street, Missoula 
Wuiteroor, Dr Robt. M. (Robert Mills), 111 Main street, Bozeman 
Witson, Mary C., 108 5 avenue, Helena 
WincHELL, Horace V. (Horace Vaughn), The Lenox, 132 West Granite 
street, Butte 


NEBRASKA 


Barpour, Erwin H. (Erwin Hinckley), University of Nebraska. 1254 
R street, Lincoln 

Brssry, Charles E. (Charles Edwin), University of Nebraska. 1504 8 
street, Lincoln 

Bruce, E. E. (Edward Estell), 401-405 South 10 street. 8 street and 
Worthington place, Omaha 

CALDWELL, How. W. (Howard Walter), University of Nebraska. 511 
North 16 st., Lincoln 

Davis, Ellery W. (Ellery Williams), University of Nebraska. 1545 C 
street 

Dietz, C. N. (Charles Nelson), 1214 Farnam street. 4288.38 st., Omaha 

Doann, A. H. (Arthur Hedley), 812 Farnam st. 812 N. 39 st., Omaha 

Furnas, Robt W. (Robert Wilkinson), 44 South 6 street, Brownville 

Gorpon, C. H. (Charles Henry), 15 and N streets. 1828 F st., Lincoln 

Hamivton, Frank T. (Frank T ), Omaha 

Ho.precr, George W. (George W ), Omaha 

Ives, W. C. (W C ), 182 North 39 street, Omaha 

Kitpatrick, Thomas, 1507 Douglas street. 410 North 22 street, Omaha 

Lewis, A. B. (Albert Buell), University of Nebraska. 1636 K st., Lincoln 

LoveLanp, G. A. (George Andrew), University’ of Nebraska. 1347 L 
street, Lincoln 

McCuHeang, Sarah M. (Sarah Maria), Lone School, 26 and Franklin 
streets. The Winona, 9 27 street and Dewey avenue, Omaha 


NEBRASKA 47 


Manperson, Charles F. (Charles Frederick), 1001 Farnam street. 38100 
Chicago street, Omaha 

Murpny, Frank, Merchants’ National Bank, Omaha 

Newton, Wm. (William), 115 Hickory st. 820 Worthington pl., Omaha 

Pwarse, C. G. (Carroll Gardner), 508 City Hall. 2205 8. 10 st., Omaha 

Prarr, James H. (James H ), Omaha Club, Omaha 

Prircuett, Geo. H. (George Edward), 1224 Farnam street. 2124 Cass 
street, Omaha 

RoureouaH, Mrs EK. J. (Elmore Jackson), 607 North 40 street, Omaha 

Suiry, Pierson D. (Pierson D ), St Edwards 

Stout, O. V. P. (Oscar Van Pelt), University of Nebraska. 1785 Euclid 
avenue, Lincoln 

Wrnne, C. K. (Charles Knickerbocker), Deputy Surgeon General, v. s. A., 
Headquarters Department of Missouri. The Omaha Club 


NEVADA 


FRIEND, Chas. W. (Charles William), Carson street. Corner Stewart and 
King streets, Carson City 

Fuuron, R. L. (Robert Lardin), 118 West 1 street, Reno 

Nerwtanps, Hon. F. G. (Francis Griffith), Reno 

Situ, W. T. (W—— T—), Elko ; 

Stupss, Joseph E. (Joseph Edward), Nevada State University, Reno 

Taytor, L. H. (L H——), Carson City 


NEW HAMPSHIRE 


Brown, O. B. (Orton Bishop), Berlin 

FrietcuHer, Robert, 3S. Park street. 42 N. College street, Hanover 

Harris, T. W. (Thaddeus William), High School Building, Winter st. 
57 Elm street, Keene 

Hirencock, C. H. (Charles Henry), Dartmouth College. Hanover 

Jounston, J. W. (John Walter), Depot square, Concord. 1819 Elm st., 
Manchester 

Lorine, Everett G. (Everett Grey), A. B., principal Hampton Academy 
and High School, Hampton 

ScHouter, James, 60 Congress street, Boston, Mass. Intervale 

Town, Col. F. L. @@'— L ), Laneaster 


NEW JERSEY 


Bancrort, Miss M. E. (M E ), The Lindens,” Haddonfield 

Barr, Harry P. (Harry Perkins), 39 Cortlandt st., N. Y. East Orange 

Bonnett, Charles I. (Charles Isham), “ Bonnell Building,” 196 Market 
street. 13 South 9 street, Newark 


48 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Brewirton, Major H. F. (Henry Feltus), vu. s. a., 1037 East Jersey 
street, Hlizabeth 

CoLLinewoon, F. (Francis), 346 B’way, N. Y. 4148S. Broad st., Elizabeth 

Cox, Jean W. (Jean Weir), Haddonfield Training School. ‘ The Lin- 
dens,” P. O. Box 715, Haddonfield 

Don, 8. Bayard (Samuel Bayard), First National Bank, Hoboken. 170 
Scotland Road, South Orange 

Downs, W. F. (William Fletcher), 75 Fairview avenue, Jersey City 

Dutcuer, Ass’t Surg. B. H. (Basil Hicks), vu. s. a., Fort Hancock 

Exxis, Miss A. C. (A—— C ), The Chestnut, Plainfield 

Farr, Marcus 8. (Marcus Stults), Princeton Univ. 12 Maple st., Princeton 

Fiemer, J. A. (John Adolph), Main street, Springfield 

Hattock, Charles, 278 Pacific avenue, Jersey City 

HorrMan, Samuel V. (Samuel. Verplanck), 91 Madison ave., Morristown 

Ho.uuisrEr, George B. (George B ), Rutherford 

Jacospus, D. 8. (David Schenck), Stevens Institute of Technology, Ho- 
boken. 83 Grand street, Jersey City 

JENKINS, Weston, ‘renton 

Kent, Wm. (William), 220 Broadway, New York. 122 Pennington 
avenue, Passaic 

Kunnarpt, W. B. (Wheaton Bradish), 1 B’way, N. Y. Bernardsville 

Lipsey, William, Princeton University. 20 Bayard lane, Princeton 

Lururr, Agnes Vinton, Newark Normal School. 917 Broad st., Newark 

McCrurg, C. F. W. (Charles Freeman Williams), Princeton University. 
80 University place, Princeton 

McGraw, James H. (James Herbert), 120 Liberty st., N. Y. Madison 

McLauentiy, A. J. (Allan Joseph), Ellis Island, New York harbor. 
185 Summit avenue, Jersey City 

MacConne t, C. C. (Charles Curtis), 611 B’way, N. Y. Morristown 

Marsu, Matilda L. (Matilda Lucille), 600 Park avenue, Paterson 

Morpeny, Franklin, 148 Chestnut st. 1027 Broad street, Newark 

Ortmann, A. E. (Arnold Edward), 8 Maple street, Princeton 

Prorpre, Otto F. (Otto Ferdinand), 15 Donaldson avenue, Rutherford 

Putman, 8. C. (Samuel Cooper), 515 Broadway, New York. Chester, 
Morris county. 

QuAcKENBusH, D. M. (Dexter M——), with Prudential Insurance Co. 
887 Lake street, Newark 

Reintiy, Miss 8. A. (S— ), State Normal School, Trenton 

Rosrson, Mrs Julia A. (Julia A ), Cranbury 

Rockxwoop, C. G., Jr. (Charles Greene), Princeton University. 34 Bay- 
ard lane, Princeton 

Rorsiine, W. A. (Washington Augustus), 191 W. State street, Trenton 

Russy, Dr H. H. (Henry Hurd), College of Pharmacy, 115 W. 68 st., 
New York. Newark 


NEW JERSEY 49 


Sinvester, C. F’. (Charles Frederick), Princeton University. 15 Nassau 
Hall, Princeton 

Smock, Dr. J. C. (J-——— C——), Trenton 

» Srpvens, Frederic W. (Frederic William),46 Macculloch ave., Morristown 

Swany, Mrs Thomas, Princeton 

Voornres, Foster M. (Foster McGowan), 142 Broad street. 297 N. 
Broad street, Elizabeth 

Wakeman, J. M. (J M ), 118 Washington st., East Orange 

Watt, Edward, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken. 157 Scot- 
land Road, South Orange 

Wesster, Miss Mary EH. (Mary E ), Cranbury 

Wuirton, John M. (John Milton), 73 William street, New York. 821 
Central avenue, Plainfield 

Winery, Wm. H. (William Halsted), 43 E. 19 street, New York city. 73 
Halsted street, Hast Orange 

Wixuiams, Miss Thyrza C. (Thyrza C——), The Lindens, Haddonfield 


NEW MEXICO 


AppEL, D. M. (Daniel Mitchell), major and surgeon U.S. Army, Fort 
Bayard 

Kren, A. A. (Alpheus Augustus), Albuquerque 

Prince, Hon. L. B. (L B—), Santa Fé 


NEW YORK 


Asporr, Major Willard, 205 West 57 street, New York City 

Apams, Cyrus C. (Cornelius Cyrus), 170 Nassau street. 416 W. 118 
street, New York City 

Apams, Geoffrey C. (Geoffrey Charlton), 29 Broadway, New York City. 
16 Hemlock place, New Rochelle 

Axupricu, Wm. S. (William Sleeper), Potsdam 

ALLEN, J. A. (Joel Asaph), American Museum of Natural History, Cen- 
tral Park W. The Kenesaw, 202 W. 103 street, New York City 

ALLEN, Robert G. (Robert G ), Weather Bureau, Lincoln Hall Cam- 
pus. Cornell Heights, Ithaca 

Anprrson, A. A. (Abraham Archibald), Bryant Park Studios, 80 W. 40 
street. 6 H. 38 street, New York City 

Bacon, Don H. (Don Henry), 100 B’dway. 13 E. 38 st., New York City 

Baker, George H. (George H——,), Columbia University, New York City 

Baxer, R.S. (R b) ), 141 I. 25 st., New York City 

Barpacn, William, 261 W. 93 street, New York City 

Barpwin, Evelyn B. (Evelyn Briggs), 60 Liberty street, New York City 

Batpwin, Wm. H., Jr. (William Henry), 128 Broadway, New York 
City. 112 Willow street, Brooklyn 


50 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Barpwe tt, D. L. (Darwin Long), Stapleton 

Baxser, A. L. (Amzi Lorenzo), 7 E. 42 street, New York City. “ Bel- 
mont,” 14 and Clifton streets, Washington, D. C. 

Barker, Rear Admiral A. 8. (Albert Smith), vu. s. x., Commandant 
New York Navy Yard and station 

Barrett, Hon. John, Waldorf-Astoria, New York City 

Barricer, Brig. Gen. John W. (John Walker), u.s. a., 202 West 103 
street, New York City 

Brpreti, Mrs Edwin A. (Edwin A——), 56 Chestnut street, Albany 

Berrs, Jessica EH. (Jessica Elizabeth), 213 Bryant street. The Wellesley, 
Edward and Franklin streets, Buffalo 

Benepict, Ezra W. (Ezra Wilkins), Warrensburg 

Benyepicr, W. De L. (W De L ), 48 Cedar street, New York City 

BrensamMin, Rev Raphael, M. A., Keap Street Temple, Brooklyn. Hotel 
Premier, 139 East 72 street, New York City 

Brrnuetmer, Charles L. (Charles Leopold), 120 Franklin street. Hotel 
Netherland, 5 avenue and 59 street, New York City 

Bicxmorg, Albert S. (Albert Smith), American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, Central Park. 130 West 80 street, New York City 

Bren, Joseph R. (Joseph Rudolph), 140 6 avenue. 3821 West 57 street, 
New York City 

Bien, Julius, 140 6 avenue. 321 West 57 street, New York City 

BisBEE, Joseph B. (Joseph Bartlett), River View Military Academy, 
Poughkeepsie 

Bisuop, James L. (James Lord), 135 Broadway. 152 East 37 street, New 
York City 

Bisnop, Maria W. (Maria Woodward), 18 Tompkins street, Cortland 

Brakes, Frederick, 8 1 street, Troy. Waterford 

Boiiennacen, Marie T. (Marie Theodore), 331 Greene avenue, Brooklyn 

Bouton, Geo. I. (George Innes), Room 1152, 11 Broadway, N. Y. City 

Bowen, Clarence W. (Clarence Winthrop), 180 Fulton street. 5 Hast 63 
street, New York City 

Braca, Prof. Jean C. (Jean Charlemagne), Vassar College, Poughkeepsie 

Brapiey, Elizabeth L. (Elizabeth Lucinda), Geneseo State Normal 
School, Geneseo 

Bripeman, Herbert L. (Herbert Lawrence), 292-293 Washington and 
317-321 Fulton streets. 604 Carlton avenue, Brooklyn 

Bricuam, Albert P. (Albert Perry), Hamilton 

Brown eer, Raymond B. (Raymond Bedell), High School, Far Rocka- 
away. Cedarhurst, Long Island 

ButuarpD, William M. (William Merrill), 8302 Madison ave., N. Y. City 

Burcess, Edward 8S. (Edward Sandford), Normal College, East 68 street. 
11 West 88 street, New York City 

Burke, Mrs B. Ellen (Bridget Ellen), 31 Barclay st., N. Y. City. Malone 


NEW YORK 51 


Burr, J. H. Ten Eyck (Jacob H—— Ten Eyck), the Cazenovia National 
Bank, Cazenovia 

Bourtis, Pay Director Arthur, vu. s.n., U.S. Navy Pay Office. 280 Broad- 
way, New York City 

Butrer, Louis C., 904 Lexington avenue, New York City 

Byrne, Col. C. C. (C C ), 48 West 25 street, New York City 

Canoon, James B. (James Blake), 40 Wall street, New York City. 31 
Winyah avenue, New Rochelle 

Carss, Miss Eliza, Teachers’ College, New York City 

Cary, Mrs Elizabeth M. L. (Elizabeth Murray Love), 184 Delaware 
avenue, Buffalo 

CattTeLi, J. McKeen (James McKeen), Columbia University, West 116 
street, New York City. Garrison-on-Hudson 

Cuark®, Frederic H., U.S. Weather Bureau, Binghamton 

CriarKeE, John M. (John Mason), State Hall, Albany 

CoeswELL, W. B. (William Browne), 100 East Washington street. 1009 
James street, Syracuse 

Cotpy, F. M. (Frank Moore), 21 Washington place. 3856 Lexington 
avenue, New York City 

Coir, Chas. W. (Charles Wadsworth), High School Building, Steuben 
and Eagle streets. 3854 Hudson avenue, Albany 

Comstock, E. (Edward), Rome 

Concer, Clarence R. (Clarence Rapelje), 37 Liberty st., New York City 

Conno.iy, Miss Louise, 136 West 109 street, New York City 

Coox, Frederick A. (Frederick Albert), 687 Bushwick avenue, Brooklyn 

Cornwatt, Arthur B. (Arthur Bradford), 842 Broadway. 3855 West 118 
street, New York City 

CortHELL, E. L. (Elmer Lawrence), 1 Nassau street, New York City. 
North Egremont, Mass. 

CREEVEY, John K. (John K ), 41 Wall street, New York City 

Crump, S. G. (Shelley Godwin), corner Main and State sts., Pittsford 

Currier, Enoch Henry, The New York Institution for the Instruction 
of the Deaf and Dumb, 163 street and Broadway, New York City 

CurHpertson, David, U.S. Weather Bureau. 490 Normal ave., Buffalo 

Davison, Mrs George, 22 1 avenue. Gloversville 

DeLtiensauaGH, F. 8. (Frederick Samuel), 35 West 21 street, New York 
City. 16 West 61 street 

Demine, Wm. H. (William Henry), The Continental Iron Works, West 
and Calyer streets, New York City. 111 Pulaski street, Brooklyn 

Doner, Richard E. (Richard Elwood), Teachers’ College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, New York City. Yonkers 

Dovucuiy, Wm. Howard (William Howard), Troy 

Doueuas, James, 99 John street. Spuyten Duyvil, New York City 


Downrne, Ruth E. (Ruth Elizabeth), Teachers’ College, West 120 street, 
New York City 


52 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Draprr, Daniel, New York Meteorological Observatory, New York City. 
Hastings-on- Hudson 

Drury, John B. (John B——), 6 Warren street, New York City 

Dupuy, Guilford, 260 Main street. 104 Garden street, Poughkeepsie 

Dunn, Robert, care of Commercial Advertiser, New York City 

Durxer, EF. R. (4 R ), West Park (on Hudson) 

Dwicut, William B. (William Buck), Vassar College, Poughkeepsie 

Eastman, Geo. (George), 343-347 State st. 400 Hast avenue, Rochester 

Eiuers, A. (Anton Frederic), 71 Broadway, New York City. 751 St 
Mark’s avenue, Brooklyn 

Kean, Major John, u.s. a., 47 West 12 street, New York City 

Exiswortn, W. W. (William Webster), 33 East 17 street, New York City 

EnenisH, N. C. J. (N—— C J——), 107 Broad street, New York 
City. Elizabeth, N. J. 

Ewen, C. (Clarence), care A. B. Mills, 127 Avenue D, New York City 

Farrcuinp, H. L. (Herman Le Roy), University of Rochester, Rochester 

Eaircuitp, John F. (John Fletcher), 18 E. 1 street, Mount Vernon. 332 
Pelhamdale avenue, Pelham 

Ferrey, W. I. (W I ), 6 William street; Auburn 

FresseLi, Dr Lewis F., Presbyterian Hospital, New York City 

Finpiry, William L. (William Luther), 67 Wall street. 31 Hast 63 
street, New York City 

Fiemine, Miss Mary A. (Mary Anne), The Oxford, 452 Pearl st., Buffalo 

Fox, Paymaster R. E. (Royal Evaungeal), The Solvay Process Co. 303 
North Lowell avenue, Syracuse 

Gace, Hon. Lyman J. (Lyman Judson), New York City 

GaGg, S. H. (Simon Henry), Stimson Hall, Cornell University Campus. 
4 South avenue, Ithaca 

GentHeE, Mrs K. W. (Martha Krug), pH. p., 109 West 54 street. 152 
East 54 street, New York City 

GERHARD, Wm. Paul (William Paul), c. ., 83 Union square, New York 
City. 89 Strong place, Brooklyn 

Girrorp, John C. (John Clayton), 109 Summit avenue, Ithaca 

Goopricu, E. P. (Ernest Payson), Navy Yard, New York City. 167 
Clinton avenue, Brooklyn 

Goopwin, Emily N. (Kmily Nichols), Public School No. 12. 114 Gates 
avenue, Brooklyn 

Grancer, John T. (John Tileston), 1 Broadway, New York City. 1838 
Connecticut avenue, Washington, D. C. 

GRINNELL, Dr. G. B. (G B ), Audubon Park, sta. M, N. Y. City 

GrossMANN, Arpad L. (Arpad Landor), 222 Broadway. The Beresford, 
1 West 81 street, New York City 

GrosvENor, Edwin P. (Hdwin P ), 414 West 118 street, N. Y. City 

Gruaan, Major F. C. (Frank Carter), u. s. a., retired, 10 EK. 53 st., New 
York City 


NEW YORK 53 


Gruver, W. A. (Elbert Asa), 904-922 Lexington ave., New York City 

Gur, Harry D. (Harry D ), 12 avenue and 58 street, Brooklyn 

Hate, Geo. D. (George David), Brown’s race and Furnace street. 1059 

Lake avenue, Rochester 

Hattock, Wm. (William), Columbia University. 417 W. 118 st., New 
York City 

Hamiuron, Allen, 127 W. 61 street, New York City 

Hammonp, Mrs John Hays, 32 Riverside drive, New York City 

Hanaman, C. HE. (Charles Edward), Troy Savings Bank, 2 and State sts. 
103 1 street, Troy 

Harriman, EK. H. (Edward H—), 120 Broadway. 1 E. 55 street, New 
York City 

Hawkins, Gen. H. 8. (H—— 8——), 25 EH. 46 street, New York City 

Heuer, Max, 70 H. 92 street, New York City 

Het, F. C. (Frank Conrad), 7 Wall street. 66 Madison avenue, New 
York City 

Hering, Rudolph, 170 Broadway, New York City. 235 Jefferson avenue, 
Brooklyn 

Herman, Mrs Esther, 59 West 56 street, New York City 

Herzoc, Paul M. (Paul Max), 22 William street. 41 West 68 street, 
New York City 

Hiaerns, F. M. (Frederick Marey), 172 West 2 street, Oswego 

Himes, Albert J. (Albert J ), Oswego 

Hinman, Russell, 100 East Washington square, New York City. 88 
Boulevard Summit, New Jersey 

Hor, Arthur I. (Arthur Ingersoll), 24 Apley Court, Cambridge, Mass. 
11 Kast 36 street, New York City 

Hor, Mrs Robert, 11 East 36 street, New York City 

Horsroox, Levi, Box 536, New York City 

Hopkins, G. B. (George Bates), 52 Broadway. 25 West 48 street, New 
York City 

Hopkins, T. C. (Thomas Cramer), Syracuse University. 103 Marshall 
street, Syracuse 

Hosmer, E. S. (Edward Sturgis), 32 Nassau street, New York City 

Houeu, A. L. (Alfred Lacey), 550 Park avenue, New York City 

Hovey, Bf. O. (Edmund Otis), American Museum of Natural History, 
77 st. and Central Park west. 115 West 84 st., New York City 

Howse, H. C. (Henry Clarence), 100 Broadway, New York City. 54 
Cranberry street, Brooklyn 

Hows, Dr. B. (S B ), Schenectady 

Howison, Rear Admiral H. L. (Henry Lycurgus), vu. s. N, retired, 72 
Ashburton avenue, Yonkers 

Huspgarp, R. J. (R—— J ), Cazenovia 


Hurp, Arthur W. (Arthur William), Buffalo State Hospital, Forest ave- 
nue, Buffalo 


54 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Huron, F. R. (Frederick Remsen), Columbia University, 116 street and 
Broadway. 319 West 107 street, New York City 

Horton, William Rich, 35 Broadway, New York City 

Jaccact. A. F. (August Floriano), 141 E. 25 st. 49 W.57 st., N. Y. City 

James, Darwin R. (Darwin Rush), 123 Maiden Lane, New York City. 226 
Gates avenue, Brooklyn 

JANES, Herbert, 725 6 avenue. 258 West 107 street, New York City 

Jesup, Morris K. (Morris Ketchum), 195 Madison avenue, New York City 

Jounson, Frank Edgar, 10 Getty square. 747 Warburton ave., Yonkers 

Kruiny, W. D. (William Datus), 45 EK. 42 street, New York City. 173 
Roberts avenue, Yonkers 

Kemp, J. F. (James Furman), Columbia University. 211 W. 139 street, 
New York City 

KimBa.L, Jas. P. (James P——), Asst. Surg. Gen., u.s. A., Onteora Club, 
Tannersville j 

Kinesrorp, T. P. (Thomas Pettibone), 378 W. 1 street, Oswego 

Lapvur, Pomeroy, New York University. University Heights, New York 

Lacrover, Eugene, Hotel Margaret, Brooklyn 

Lanpis, Capt. J. F. Reynolds (John Fulton Reynolds), ist U.S. Cav., 
West Point 

Law, B. W. (Benedict Willis), Collins 

Letson, Miss Elizabeth J. (Elizabeth Jane), Buffalo Society of Natural 
Sciences, Washington street. 866 Massachusetts avenue 

LevermMore, Charles H. (Charles Herbert), Adelphi College. 380St James 
place, Brooklyn 

Levis, Francis A. (Francis Adelbert), U. S. Revenue Cutter Service. 
Waverly, Tioga county 

Lincoin, C. M. (Charles Monroe), New York Herald. 308 West 94 street, 
New York City 

Lrysiry, Julius G. (Julius Gilbert), Weather Bureau, Room 33 Custom 
House, Oneida. 119 West 8 st., Oswego 

Locan, Walter S. (Walter Seth), 27 William street. 112 Riverside Drive, 
New York City 

Low, Hon. Seth, New York City 

Luppineton, Harriet A. (Harriet Adelaide), Brooklyn Training School 
for Teachers. 196 Joralemon street, Brooklyn. 40 Dwight street, 
New Haven, Connecticut 

Lumuo.tz, Carl (Carl Sophus), American Museum of Natural History. 
30 West 11 street, New York City 

Lyon, Edmund,|Chamber of Commerce, 119 Main street East. 505 Hast 
Avenue, Rochester 

McCuure, H. H. (H— H—), Armour Villa Park, Yonkers 

McCuurg, 8. 8. (S—— S——), 141 Hast 25 street, New York City 

McCorpy, Caroline G. (Caroline G——), 25 West 19 st., New York City 


NEW YORK 55 


MecNatr, EB. O. (Eben Orlando), 203 Ellicott square, Main street. 957 
Delaware avenue, Buffalo 

Mackey, W. A. (William Akerley), North street, Matteawan 

Macy, Nelson, 95-97 William street. 707 Park ave., New York City 

Manpevitir, H. C. (Hubert Carpenter), 159 Lake street. 509 Church 
street, Elmira 

Marruiessen, F. W. (F W ), Lasalle 

Maury, Mytton, Horlings-on-Hudson 

Mercs, Titus B. (Titus Benjamin), 26 Broadway. 16 H.65st., N. Y. City 

Menocat, A. G. (A G ), The Forrest, New York City 

Merriam, Bessie G. (Betsey Greene), Girls’ High School. 84 McDon- 
ough street, Brooklyn 

Merritt, F. J. H. (Frederick James Hamilton), New York State Mu- 
seum, 120 State street. 95 Washington avenue, Albany 

Miter, J. Martin (J Martin), New York City. 1417 Gstreet, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 
Mircnett, Prof. Henry, 179 Madison avenue, New York City 
Monreomery, Harry EK. (Harry Earl), 31 Erie County Bank Bldg. 949 
Delaware avenue, Buffalo ; 
Morean, T. J. (Thomas Jefferson), 111 5 avenue, New York City. 117 
Park avenue, Yonkers 

Morris, Dr Lewis R. (Lewis R ), 60 W. 58 street, New York City 

Mvetirr, H. H. (Hermann Henry), Bronxville 

Morpny, Edward C. (Edward Charles), Cornell University. 130 Hazen 
street, Ithaca 

Myrick, J. R. (John Reuchlin), care of Latham, Alexander & Co., 16 
Wall street, New York City 

Netson, Chas. N. (Charles Nicolas), Port Washington, Long Island 

Netson, E. B. (Edward Beverly), Central New York Institute for Deaf 
Mutes, Madison street. 711 North Madison street, Rome 

Netson, George F. (George Francis), Diocesan House, 29 La Fayette 
place, New York City 

Norris, Adelaide (Adelaide Julia), Normal School. 70 Le Roy street, 
Potsdam 

Norris, Henry D. (Henry D——), 15 West 74 street, New York City 

Norris, J. Carlton (J Carlton), pH. p., Canandaigua 

Norman, George, 99 John st., New York City. 182 Amity st., Brooklyn 

OerrinceR, J. (J ), 117 Woodward avenue, Rochester 

Ocrrvin, I. H. (Ida Helen), Columbia University. Sherman Square 
Hotel, 71 street and Broadway, New York City 

Ouman, August R. (August Reinhold), 15 Warren street. 242 W. 104 
street, New York City 

Oxcorr, E. E. (Eben Erskine), 36 Wall st. 38 W. 39 st., New York City 

Osporn, Prof. H. F. (H F ), 850 Madison avenue, New York City 


56 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Pappock, Miss Bertha L. (Bertha L—), Franklin Academy, Malone 

Pruenet, C. P. E. (C—— P H—.), Amsterdam 

Puiuuies, John 8. (John S——), McClure’s Magazine, New York City 

Prercr, Theo. H. (Theodore Hazletine), 71 Wall street. 3839 W. 85 
street, New York City 

PoHiMAN, Julius, 404 Franklin street, Buffalo 

Powe ut, Prof. W. B. (William Bramwell), 146 W.104st., New York City 

Powers, C. V. V. (C——~ V V—), Katonah 

Pricer, Frank J. (Frank J ), 18 Montgomery place, Brooklyn 

Prince, J. Dyneley (John Dyneley), Columbia University. 15 Lexing- 
ton avenue, New York City 

ProuprFit, F. F. (Frank Ford), Hotel Iroquois, 49 W. 44 street, New 
York City 

Puusrrer, W. E. (W—— E——), 91-98 5 avenue, New York City 

Ranpon, J. B. (J-—— B ), 17 W. 78 street, New York City 

Repway, J. W. (Jacques Wardlaw), 39 East 4 street, Mount Vernon 

Reuter, Dr L. (L ), Merck Building. New York City 

Ruees, Rush, University of Rochester. 440 University ave., Rochester 

Ricuarps, F. H. (Francis Henry), 9-15 Murray street, New York City. 

Hartford, Connecticut, and the Waldorf-Astoria, New York City 

Ricuarpson, C. A. (Charles Albert), Canandaigua 

Ries. Heinrich, Cornell University. 610 Hast Seneca street, Ithaca 

Ropert, Col. Henry M. (Henry M ), Army Building, New York City 

RockwELu, Chas. H. (Charles H ), 40 Benedict avenue, Tarrytown 

Sarrorp, M. Victor (M Victor), Bureau of Immigration, Ellis Island 

SHELDON, Miss Grace C. (Grace C ), 42 White Building, Buffalo 

SHprwoop, John EK. (John Emory), 157 Madisonavenue. 2 High street, 
Albany 

Suipron, Capt. James A. (James Ancil), Arty. Corps, u.s. 4., Governor’s 
Island, New York City 

Snorkiey, Maj. George, 336 E. 77 street, New York City 

Stcxies, Gen. D. E. (D E ), 23 5 avenue, New York City 

Sims, Alfred F. (Alfred F ), Weather Bureau, Albany 

Smivey, Albert K. (Albert Keith), Lake Mohonk Mountain House, Mo- 
honk Lake, Ulster county 

Smirn, Dr Andrew H. (Andrew Heermance), 18 E. 46 st., New York City 

Smrru, Fredk. D. (Frederick Douglass), 328 D. F. Walker Bldg, Salt 
Lake, Utah. 217 Hazen street, Ithaca 

Smrru, Irving B. (Irving Butler), cor. Prospect and Washington streets, 
Warsaw 

Smrrx, T. Guilford (Thomas Guilford), 9 German Ins. Bldg., 451 Main 
street. 489 Delaware avenue, Buffalo 

Snow, Dr Charles H. (Charles H——), N. Y. University, New York City 

Saurres, Grant, 41 Wall street. 492 West End avenue, New York City 


NEW YORK 57 


Sranutey-Brown, J. (Joseph), 120 Broadway. Yale Club, 30 W. 44 st., 
New York City 

Sranton, John, 11 William street. 419 W. 23 street, New York City 

Srarr, Frederick W. (Frederick William), foot 28 street. 16 Montgom- 
ery place, Brooklyn 

Srrrrens, J. Lincoln (Joseph Lincoln), McClure’s Magazine, 141 E. 25 
street. 10 EH. 28 street, New York City 

Srepuens, Prof. H. Morse (H Morse), Cascadilla place, Ithaca 

Srrvenson, J. J. (John James), University Heights. 568 West End 
avenue, New York City 

Tanner, J. H. (John Henry), Cornell University. ‘‘ The Knoll,’ Cor- 
nell Heights, Ithaca 

TarBELL, Miss Ida M. (Ida Minerva), 141 E. 25 street, New York City 

Tarr, Prof. R. S. (Ralph Stockman), Cornell University, 1 East avenue, 
Ithaca 

Taytor, J. M. (James Monroe), Vassar College, Poughkeepsie 

Taytor, Rev. W. R., D. D. (William Rivers), 13 Prince street, Rochester 

Tuornpure, Dr R. M. (R M ), Fort Slocum 

Tuurston, R. H. (Robert Henry), Sibley College, Cornell University. 
15 East avenue, Cornell Campus, Ithaca 

Trur, Miss Mary H. (Mary H ), care F. R. Hazard, Syracuse 

Trump, Edwd. N. (Edward Needles), Solvay Process Co. 1912 West 
Genesee street, Syracuse 

VrrMeutr, C. C. (C—— C——), 208 Broadway, New York City 

Weep, J. N. (Jonathan Noyes), 71 Water st. 244 Grand st., Newburgh 

Wetnricu, Moriz, 76 Ashburton avenue, Yonkers 

Westerve tt, Z. F. (Zenas Freeman), 945 St Paul street, Rochester 

Weston, Alfred J. (Alfred J ), 590 Palisade avenue, Yonkers 

Wueeter, W. B. (W B ), 80 Broadway, New York City 

Wuirr, Wm. Augustus, 197 Montague st. 158 Columbia Hts., B’klyn 

Wuirney, EH. R. (Eddy R ), High School. 20 North st., Binghamton 

Witriams, William, 35 Wall st. 1 West 54 street, New York City 

Witiiamson, Haidee, 18 Kast 48th street, New York City 

Wrtson, C. I. (Charles Irving), Army Bldg. 86 Madison ave., N. Y. City 

WirHerser, Frank S. (Frank S ), Fort Henry, N. Y. 

Youmans, W. J. (W—— J ), 278 Prospect avenue, Mount Vernon 

Youne, G. W. (George Washington), 59 Cedar street. 28 West 73 street, 
New York City 


NORTH CAROLINA 


Ampier, Dr C. P. (Chase P——), 3-6 Temple court, Patton avenue. 
Merriman avenue, Asheville 
Asue, W. W. (William Willard), 628 Hillsboro street, Raleigh 


5 


58 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Ciaxton, Prof. P. P. (P 1p ), Greensboro 

Coss, Collier, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 

Frssenpren, Reginald A. (Reginald Aubrey), Weather Bureau, Washing- 
ton. Manter, Roanoke Island 

Frank, G. W., Jr. (G Wi ), New London 

HERRMANN, Charles F. von (Charles Frederick Lewis), Fisher Building, | 
corner Fayetteville st. and Exchange pl. 314 W. Hargett st., Raleigh 

Homes, Prof. Joseph A. (Joseph A ). University of North Carolina, 
Chapel Hill 

Lawrence, Thos. (Thomas), Normal and Collegiate Institute, Asheville 

McNameg, Charles, Biltmore 

Massey, W. F. (Wilbur Fisk), Experimental Station, Raleigh 

Morson, Hugh, corner Jones and Bloodworth sts. E. Jones st., Raleigh 

OBERHOLZER, G. R. (George Rtiger), Post-Office Building. 301 South 
Church street, Charlotte 

Prarr, Joseph Hyde, Chapel Hill 

Ray, John E. (John Edwin), School for Deaf and Blind. Jones and 
McDowell streets, Raleigh 

Rippicx, W. C. (Wallace Carl), West Raleigh 

Rorsrine, John A. (John Augustus), 184 Cumberland ave., Asheville 

THompson, D. Matt (David Matt), Bell St. School. P.O.box 145, States- 
ville 

TicHr, R. J. (Richard Joseph), room 59, City Hall. 175 Chestnut st., 
Asheville 

Wivxss, Jno. (John), 508 W. Icade street, Charlotte 


NORTH DAKOTA 


Fierp, John C. (John Charles), Court House, Williston 

Hatt, Charles Monroe, State Agricultural College. 211 10 st. N., Fargo 

Jonrs, E. E. (Edward Everett), Buford 

Kaurman, KE. E. (Elmer Elsworth),Agricultural College. 914 Istave. N., 
Fargo 

' Unio, Captain James, u. s. A., North Dakota Agricultural College. 109 
9 street N., Fargo 

Witiarp, Daniel E. (Daniel Everett), State Normal School, Mayville 


OHIO 


BacHte.L, Col. Samuel, Bldg. of Public Works, Columbus 

Baupwiy, S. Prentiss (Samuel Prentiss), Williamson Bldg. 736 Pros- 
pect street, Cleveland 

Bargour, J. L. (John Lewis), 212 5 street, Marietta 

Brarpsier, Prof. Henry C. (Henry C——), 376 Russell ave., Cleveland 

Buair, Miss Kate Ruth, Wilmington 


OHIO 59 


Buatr, R. A. (Reuben Almond), 227 Ohiostreet. 321 E. 2 street, Sedalia 

Cire, Joseph L., Ph. D. (Joseph Leander), U. S. Weather Bureau, 
The Esmond, 915 Washington street, Sandusky 

Comrnes, Hon. A. G. (A G ), Oberlin 

Comstock, F. M. (Frank Mason), Case School of Applied Sciences. 85 
Cornell street, Cleveland 

Cowen, B. R. (Benjamin Rush), U.S. Court House, Federal Building. 
2406 Highland avenue, Cincinnati 

Currier, W.S. (William Sprague), Government Building, corner Michi- 
gan and St. Clair streets. The Loiston, Monroe and 16 sts., Toledo 

Cusuine, H. P. (Henry Platt), Western Reserve University. 260 Sibley 
street, Cleveland 

Davis, Rey. Thos. K., D. D. (Thomas Kirby), University Library, 
Wooster 

Dr Lone, George W. (George Washington), Corning 

Durron, Chas. F., Jr. (Charles Frederic), West High School. 626 
Franklin avenue, Cleveland 

EexFetp, E. (Elmer), 3 and Main streets, Uhrichsville. 2 and Sherman 
streets, Dennison 

Frynn, Benj. H. (Benjamin Harrison), New State Building, Broad, 3 
State and High streets. 102 Wilson avenue, Columbus 

Fosuay, P. Max (Perey Maxwell), 129 Euclid avenue. 73 Kdgewood 
Place, Cleveland 

Garrorp, A. L. (A L ), Elyria 

Grosvenor, C. H. (Charles Henry), House of Representatives, Washing- 
ton, D. C. Athens 

Hamann, Dr W. N. (W N—), Dayton 

Hicks, Frederick C. (Frederick Charles), Univ. of Cincinnati. Norwood 

Huerr, Miss Susan A. (Susan A ), The Clifton School, Cincinnati 

Hucues-Marxks, Mrs Ann, Washington School Building, East street 
East Main street, Hillsboro 

Hunt, Samuel, Cincinnati 

Jones, EK. A. (Edmund Adams), 138 East Tremont street, Massillon 

Kpnerary, James, U.S. Weather Bureau. 6 Linwood street, Cleveland 

McFaruanp, R. W. (Robert White), High street, Oxford 

Marrzouer, C. L. (Clement Luther), New Lexington 

Massrp, D. M. (David Meade), 178. Paint st. 242 W.Waterst., Chillicothe 

Meck, W. H. (William Henry), Steele High School. 231 W.4st., Dayton 

Mereatr, Irving W. (Irving Wight), Oberlin 

Minipr, Charles C. (Charles C ), Superintendent Public Schools, Lima 

Morsrr, Edmund, 83 Main street. 56 South 7 street, Zanesville 

Morser, Louis, 218 East 4 street. 382 Hast McMillan street, Cincinnati 

Monsnat, C. (Cleophas), Tytus Hall, Middletown 

Mosetey, 1. L. (Edwin Lincoln), High School. 125 Vine st., Sandusky 


° 


60 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Osporn, A. P. (Arthur Patterson), Wheelersburg 

OsBorn, Herbert, Ohio State University. 485 King ave., Columbus 

Pearson, F. B. (Francis Bail), East High School. 125 Wilson avenue, 
Columbus 

Prerersiter, Arthur F. M.(Arthur Ferdinand Moritz), East High School. 
The Herman, 2102 Superior street, Cleveland 

Prosser, Charles 8. (Charles Smith), Ohio State University. 114 West 
10th avenue, Columbus 

Ranpat., H. O. (Emilius Oviatt), Supreme Court Building. 1025 Oak 
street, Columbus 

Ropinson, Joseph, Columbus 

ScHorpr, W. Kesley (William Kesley), Apollo Building, 5 and Walnut 
streets. 622 Oak street, Cincinnati 

SHILLITO, Stewart, Race, 7 & Shillito pl. 250 E. Auburn ave., Cincinnati 

Suumarp, Miss Lillie, Madisonville 

Smiry, J.Warren (John Warren), 2155S. Highst. 1422 Oakst., Columbus 

Taupor, Mignon, 640 Franklin avenue, Columbus 

Tappan, Rey. David 8S. (David Stanton), President of Miami University. 
215 Kast High street, Oxford 

TuHompson, A. C. (Albert Clifton), Government Building. 2038 Auburn 
avenue, Cincinnati 

THRESHER, HW. M. (E M ), Dayton 

Topp, Joe H. (Joseph Henry), 150 West Liberty street. “ Christmas 
Knoll,” Wooster 

Vance, William McK. (William MeK—-), Supt. of Schools, Urbana 

Van Nus, H. (Hans), 218-220 East 4 street, Cincinnati. Glendale 

Vorues, Austin W. (Austin Workman), Pomeroy 

Warrinaton, Geo. H. (George Howard), United Bank Building, 3 and 
Walnut streets. Queen City Club, Cincinnati 

Weaver, Rey. Rufus W. (Rufus W ), Middletown 

Wesster, F. M. (Francis Marion), Wooster 

Wirson, Stella (Stella Shoemaker), Central High School. 97 North 20 
street, Columbus 

Woop, Herbert C. (Herbert Carroll), East High School, Genesee avenue, 
411 East Prospect street, Cleveland 

Woop, Thomas J. (Thomas John), 121 North Main street, Dayton 

Wricut, G. Frederick (George Frederick), 145 Elm street, Oberlin 


OREGON 


AppLeGatr, Hlmer I. (Elmer Ivan), Klamath Falls 

Brats, Edw’d A. (Edward Alden), U.S. Custom-house, cor. Park and 
Couch streets. 2385 Thirteenth street, Portland 

Capron, Albert J. (Albert Judson), 327-328 Marquam Building. 530 
Davis street, Portland 


OREGON 61 


Cottier, Arthur J. (Arthur J-—), Salem’ 

Doran, Capt. Peter, S. S. Columbia, Portland 

Ecxerson, Major Theo. J.(Vheodore John), u.s.., 575 Couch st., Portland 

Gorman, M. W. (Martin Woodlock), 823 3 street. 166 10 street, Portland 

Hampton, Wm. Huntley, Placer 

Hawkins, L. L. (Lester Leander), Sherlock Building, 832 3 street. 563 
4 street, Portland 

Paxton, O. F. (Ossian Franklin), Chamber of Commerce Building. 
Hotel Portland, Portland 

Sree, Will. G. (William Gladstone), 230 Russell street. 541 Borthwick 
street, Portland 

Waite, I. Brook (Thomas Brook), 793 Johnson street, Portland. 


PENNSYLVANIA 


AtpBmrt, Chas. H. (Charles H——), State Normal School. 426 Hast 2 
street, Bloomsburg 

ATHERTON, Geo. W. (George Washington), State College 

Batrp-Huey, Miss H. J. (H J ), The Lorraine, Philadelphia 

Bascom, F. (Florence), Dalton Hall, Bryn Mawr College. Low Build- 
ings, Bryn Mawr 

Brauy, Mrs Walter, Carlisle 

Briackat, C. R. (Christopher Rubey), 1420 Chestnut st., Phila. Bala 

Bopine, Win. B. (William Budd), 4025 Walnut street, Philadelphia 

Booru, F. W. (Frank Walworth), 7342 Rural Lane, Mt. Airy, Phila. 

Bovuritiinr, Dr Theodore Le, 1625 Diamond street, Philadelphia 

Brennan, C. M. (Charles Michael), 21 Main st. 383 Summerst., Bradford 

Bryant, Henry G. (Henry Grier), Room 806, Land Title Building, 
Broad and Chestnut streets. 2015 Walnut street, Philadelphia 

Camppett, J. R. (John Russell), 206 Seneca st. 116 W. 2 st., Oil City 

Carpenter, L. H. (Louis Henry), 2318 De Lancey place, Philadelphia 

CavenAuGH, Maj. H. G. (H G ), Girard College, Philadelphia 

Cuampers, F’, T. (Frank Taylor), u.s.n., Navy Yard, League Island 

Ciapp, Geo. H. (George Hubbard), 325 Water st., Pittsbure. Edgeworth 

Copman, John E. (John Hagar), Room 796, City Hall, Broad and Market 

streets. 5739 Spruce street, Philadelphia 

Cornetius, Rey. 8. (S ), Reed street, Oil City 

Cox, Alexander B. (Alexander Brinton), Drifton 

Crosman, Charles $8. (Charles Sumner), The Oaks, Lancaster avenue, 
Haverford 

Crourrr, A. L. E. (Albert Louis Edgerton), Pennsylvania Institute for 
the Deaf. 1406 Germantown avenue, Mount Airy, Philadelphia 

Docx, Mira L. (Mira Lloyd), 1427 N. Front street, Harrisburg 

Drown, T. M. (Thomas Messinger), Lehigh University, South Bethlehem 


62 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Dutt, Mrs A. P. L. (Helen Boyd), 211 N. Front street, Harrisburg 

Durrer, Edw. C. (Edward Calvin), Chestnut Hill Academy, Philadelphia 

Harp, Samuel, 112 West 1 street, Oil City 

Exxiorr, Charles P. (Charles Pinckney), 62 North Franklin street, 
Wilkesbarre 

Eny, Theo. N. (Theodore Heme Broad Street Station, Philadelphia. 
Bryn Mawr 

Eyerman, Jno. (John), Oakhurst, Easton 

Frtton, W. C. (Edgar Conway), 312 Girard Building, Broad and Chest- 
nut streets, ee Blew erford 

Fricxinerr, J. R. J 

Garrert, Miss Mary S. fe y sonith) Belmont ae Menuenent ayenues, 
Philadelphia 

Garrett, Philip, 308 Walnut street. Logan Station, Philadelphia 

Goopr, Dr J. Paul (John Paul), University of Pennsylvania. 218 De 
Kalb street, Philadelphia 

GraFr, Matthew A. (Matthew Addison), Beaver street, Sewickley. 


Shields 

Grosvenor, Asa W. (Asa Waters), care Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 
Pittsburg 

Harcuer, J. B. (John Bell), Carnegie Museum. 38200 Elsmore square, 
Pittsburg 


Hazevtine, A. J. ( Tarren 

Heap, Elizabeth L. (Hlizabeth Lease), 109 W. Chelton ave., Germantown 

Hetiprin, Prof. Angelo, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia 

Hutines, Willis J. (Willis J ), Lamberton Block, Oil City 

Herr, Mrs A. J. (Nannie Gilmore), 19 North Front street, Harrisburg 

Hexamer, C. J. (Charles John),419 Walnut street. 819 Corinthian aye- 
nue, Philadelphia 

Hormes, Miss Mary 8. (Mary Smith), 1831 North 12 st., Philadelphia 

lomo, i M. C. (Mary Caroline), Northumberland 

Hupparp, Russell 8. (Russell Sturgis), 424 Chestnut street, Philadelphia. 
228 Manheim street, Germantown 

JEFFERSON, J. P. (John Percival), 209 2 st. Cor. 2 & Market sts., Warren 

Kinzer, 8S. L. B. (Stuart Lee Bergstresser), Powelton avenue and 32 st 
W. Philadelphia. 83 E. Baltimore avenue, Lansdowne 

Kremer, Chas. D. (Charles Daniel), Linden Hall Seminary, Lititz 

LrHMAn, George M. (George Mustin), corner Smithfield street and 4 ave., 
Federal Building. 4512 Center avenue, Pittsburg 

LockHart, Charles, 541 Wood st. 608 North Highland ave., Pittsburg 

Loaan, John P. (John Pressley), 516 Crozer Bldg., 1420 Chestnut street, 
Philadelphia. West Chester 

Lyman, Benj. Smith (Benjamin Smith), 708 Locust st., Philadelphia 

McAuurister, Dr Anna M. (Anna M ), 8626 Hamilton st., Philadelphia 


PENNSYLVANIA 63 


McKetyy, Mrs Wm. M. (William } e- 
nues, Pittsburg 

Macraw, Adam R. (Adam Reigart), Bedford 

Marspen, Miss Kate, Lansdowne 

Marrson, Dr Charles, 3122 Burk street, Philadelphia 

SRE Mansfield, Lehigh University, South Bethlehem 

Moreaan, George O. (George O ), P. O. Box 590, Pittsburg 

Morris, Dr Henry, 313 South 16 street, Philadelphia 

Morrison, B. G. (Byron Gordon), Sugar Run 

Oakes, James, care N. Holmes & Sons, Pittsburg 

OxteHAn, F. H. (Fideleo Hughes), National Transit Co. Building, 507 
West 2 street, Oil City 

Parrerson, J. L. (James Lawson), Chestnut Hill Academy, corner 33 
street and Willow Grove ave., Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia 

Peck, Frederick B. (Frederick Burritt), 23 Pardee Hall, College Hill, 


Easton 
Prnrosk, Dr Charles B. (Charles Bingham), 1720 Spruce street, Phila- 
delphia 


Penrose, Jr., Richard Alexander Fullerton, 1331 Spruce st., Philadelphia 

BerrrcoN, O. A. (Olof August), The Carnegie Museum, Schenley Park, 
Pittsburg 

Pures, Geo. Morris, State Normal School. 700 South High street, 
West Chester 

Pierry, W. J. (William James); American House, Bethlehem 

Prarr, Lt. Col. R. H. (Richard Henry), v. s. a., Indian School, Carlisle 

Ramaau, S$. Y. (Samuel Young), West 3 street, Oil City 

Ranpary, Edw. L. (Edward Locke), 644 East Chelton avenue, Phila- 
delphia 

Reep, President George H. (George E——), Dickinson College, Carlisle 

Rerp, Mrs Henry H. (Henry Hahn), 1425 Chestnut street, Philadelphia 

Ricuter, Miss Anna R. (Anna R ), 8500 Lancaster avenue, Phila- 
delphia 

Roppy, H. Justin (Harry Justin), State Normal School, Millersville 

Ruppie, John, Mauch Chunk. East Mauch Chunk 

Sareenr, Harriett B. (Harriett Betsy), 8 South 12 street. 3712 Locust 
street, Philadelphia 

Scuarrrer, Nathan C., Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg 

Suerrerp, J. M. Gene Maxw ell), High Bridge, New Jersey. 122 N. 
2 street, Easton 

Stocum, Dr Chas. E. (Charles Elihu), Columbia University and Univer- 
sity of Pennsylyania. 201 Clinton street. Hotel Defiance, Clinton 
street, cor. First, Defiance, Ohio 

Smrra, Henry E. (Henry Eagle), Stephen Girard Building, 19 South 
12 street. Corner 18 and Spruce streets, Philadelphia 


64 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Smitu, Col. Jos. R. (Joseph Rowe), vu. s. 4., 2300 De Lancey st., Phila. 

SPEAKMAN, Elvira Y. (Elvira Young), State Normal School, South High 
street, West Chester 

Stewart, Douglas, Carnegie Muscuni: Pittsburg. 949 Lincoln avenue, 
Aillegahean? 

Stewart, Dr W. A. (William Alvah), 105 North Dallas ave., Pittsburg 

Stone, C. W. (Charles Warren), 310 2 st. 505 Liberty st., Warren 

Taytor, Harris, Pa. Inst. for Deaf and Dumb. Mt Airy, Philadelphia 

THompson, Edwin Stanley, Pa. Inst. for Deaf and Dumb, Mt Airy, Phila. 

Tirrany, Ruth Moulton, 38 South 7 street, Indiana 

Topp, W. E. Clyde (Walter Edmond Clyde), Carnegie Museum, Pitts- 
burg. Beaver 

Travurwine, John C., Jr. (John Cresson), 257 South 4 street. 1111 Wal- 
nut street, Philadelphia 

Trorrpr, Spencer, Swarthmore College. 1032 Spruce st., Philadelphia 

Uprecrarr, A. G. (Alexander Garden), Liberty and Atlantic avenues, 
East End, Pittsburg 

Van WaGenwr, J. B. (J—— B—), 256 Frankstown avenue. East 
End, Pittsburg 

Vaux, George, Jr., 404 Girard Bldg., Broad and Chestnut streets. 1715 
Arch street, Philadelphia 

Wanpswortn, M. H. (Marshman Edward), Pennsylvania State College 

Weesster, Frederic S. (Frederic Smith), Carnegie Museum. 632 South 
Negley avenue, Pittsburg 5 

Weimer, Walter E. (Walter Earle), 724 Cumberland street, Lebanon 

West, Emma F. (Emma Florence), Institute for Deaf and Dumb, Mount 
Airy, Philadelphia 

Witson, Joseph M. (Joseph Miller), 1050 Drexel Building. 1106 Spruce 
street, Philadelphia 

Witson, Wm. B. (William Bender), 49 st. and Columbia avenue. 8006 
Frankford avenue, Philadelphia 

Wotte, Clarence A. (Clarence A ), Bethlehem 

Wotverton, S. P. (8 ), Sunbury 

Woop, Walter, 400 Chestnut street. 1620 Locust street, Philadelphia 

Woops, Edward A. (Edward Augustus), Frick Building, Pittsburg. 318 
Grant street, Sewickley 


RHODE ISLAND 


Buck, Walter F. (Walter French), Pawtucket High School. 147 East 
avenue, Pawtucket 
Carpenter, C. E. (Charles Edmund), 49 Westminster street, Providence 
23 Cottage street, Pawtucket 
CuEstER, Capt. Colby Mitchel, v. s. x., U.S. Naval War College, Newport 


RHODE ISLAND 65 


Daring, L. M. ), Pawtucket 

Demine, Charlotte E. (Charlotte Elizabeth), Normal School. 52 Angell 
street, Providence 

Dexter, S. Frank (Samuel Francis), 18 Church street, Pawtucket 

Haston, Fred’c W. (Frederic Willard), 180 Weeden street. 164 East 
avenue, Pawtucket 

Exuis, H. B. (Herbert Bradford), 10 Weybosset street. 60 Harvard ave- 
nue, Providence 

Freprary, Clarie L. (Clarie Lee), Roosevelt Street Grammar School. 
79 Bradford street, Providence 

Gopparp, Mrs William (Mary Edith), 838 Brown street, Providence 

Kwacu, M. A. (Mary Alice), 120 Congdon street, Providence 

Law, Frederick H. (Frederick Houk), Broadway High School. 147 Hast 
avenue, Pawtucket 

MacDonatp, William, Brown University. 127 Waterman st., Providence 

Mowry, Florence P. (Florence Passmore), High School street. 112 
Providence street, Woonsocket 

Moreuy. Maj. Paul St. C. (Paul St. Clair), Guam, Ladrone Hislemnete 
U.S. Training Station, Newport 

Nickerson, Edward I. (Edward Irving), 61 Westminster street. 71 
Angell street, Providence 

Pierce, Henry A. (Henry Augustus), 233 Main street. 25 Spring street, 
Pawtucket 

Pierce, Almira F. (Almira Fisher), 22 Keene street, Providence 

Scorr, A. C. (A—— C ), R. I. Col. of Agr. and Mech. Arts, Kingston 

Smiry, Jr., O. (O—), Pawtucket 

Surciirre, Adam, 47 Allen avenue, Pawtucket 

Tenny, Allen, Providence 

Wicxiunp, Irene E. (Irene Elizabeth), Elm Street School. 15 Grove 
avenue, Westerly 


SOUTH CAROLINA 


Brarpster, Rear Adml. L. A. (Lester Anthony), u.s. N., Beaufort 

Cortey, J. J. (J J——), Florence 

Evans, Frank, Spartanburg 

Lewis, Prof. J. Volney (Joseph Volney), Clemson Agricultural College, 
Clemson 


SOUTH DAKOTA 
Burrows, O. C. (Orville Cooper), U. S. Weather Bureau. East End 
street, Pierre ; 
Cuitcorr, E. C. (llery Channing), Agricultural College. 619 10 street, 
Brookings 


66 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Exuis, R. W. (Robert Walpole), Byron place, Hurley 

GLENN, 8.W. (Samuel Wright), 337 Dakota avenue. Corner 4 and Mon- 
tana streets, Huron 

How, A. B. (Andrew Bottolf), Wh, fi, Experiment Station, Brookings 

DBASE, H. (Hargreaves), U.S. Surveyor General’s Office, 405 Dakota 
avenue. 1288 3 street, Huron 

Lay, Corliss W. (Corliss Wilkes), Yankton College, Yankton 

Saunpers, D. A. (De Alton), State Agric. Col. 1401 9th ave., Brookings 

Topp, J. E. (James Edward), State University, Vermilion 

Youne, Clark M. (Clark Montgomery), University Hall, Vermilion 


TENNESSEE 


Apams, Lt. Col. M. B. (Milton Butler), u. s. a., 1918 West Broad street, 
Nashville 

Barrer, A. T. (Albert Tennyson), City Hall, Market square. 1001 East 
9 street, Chattanooga 

BuiaGpeN, John D. (John D——), Weather Bureau, Memphis 

Emery, 8. C. (S— C ), Weather Bureau, Memphis 

Foster, W. F. (Wilbur Fisk), 3 Berry Block, 4013 Church street. 1702 
West End avenue, Nashville 

Furiron, Prof. Wm. M. (William Tenn., Knoxville 

GuEnn, L. C. (Leonidas Chalmers), Vanderbilt University. 2016 West 
End avenue, Nashville 

McDonatp, Hunter, 1915 West Ind avenue, Nashville 

Maynarp, James, Deaderick Building, Knoxville 

Srooxespury, William L. (William L ), Harriman 

Van Deventer, J. (James Thayer), 11 Wall street. 861 Temple ave- 
nue, Knoxville 

Wiper, Gen. John T. (John Thomas), U. S. Pension Office, Knoxville 

Wricut, M. H. (Moses Hannibal), Union sta. 2013 Hayes st., Nashville 


_ TEXAS 


Bowin, Edward H. (Edward Hall), 2222 Post-Office street. 2406 24 
street, Galveston 
BRACKENRIDGE, George M. 
Cuaruiss, C. Fowler (Charles Fowler Jones), cor. Walnut and Jefferson 

streets, 171 Park Row, Dallas 
Foriterr, W. W. (W ), El Paso 
McDonatp, Miss Mary A. (Mary A——), 401 Richmond avenue, San 
Antonio 
Monrcomery, R. EF. (Robert Eglinton), 104 West 2 street, Fort Worth 
Reeper, Geo. (George), U. S. Weather Bureau, Corpus Christi 


TEXAS 67 


Scuuutz, L. G. (Louis G ), cor. Jennings avenue and Texas street. 
1004 Lamar street, Fort Worth 

Scorretp, Miss Sarah C. (Sarah Coates), High School, Maine avenue. 
456 Murphy avenue, San Antonio 

Seetry, W. B. (William Belcher), San Antonio Academy. 1935 North 
Flores street, San Antonio 

Smonps, Frederic W. (Frederic William), University of Texas. 208 
East 24 street, Austin 

Suir, J. KE. (James Edward), Belton 

Taytor, T. U. (Thomas Ulvan), University of Texas. 2012 August 
street, Austin 


UTAH 


Measr, J. H. (J—— H ), Fort Duchesne 

Herxes, Victor C. (Victor C ), Salt Lake City 

Harmston, Ed. F. (Edgar Fernando), 106-108 West Uintah avenue. 
Cor. 5 West st. and Uintah avenue, Vernal 

Jenkins, Washington, Room 321, Utah Loan and Trust Building, 24 street. 
584 1 street, Ogden 

Jounson, E. (Edward), Dooly Block. 5538S. 4 East st., Salt Lake City 

Lucr, Joseph, Hardie Cinnabar Mines, B. C. 29 South 6 East street, 
Salt Lake City 

Murpocu, L. H. (Lester H—), 601 Dooly Block. 256 West 3 North 
street, Salt Lake City 

Near, Wm. Dalton (William Dalton), Salt Lake City High School. 
Cleddau House, 272 North 2 West street, Salt Lake city 

Netson, William, 121 South First West street, Salt Lake City 

THoRNE-THOMSEN, George, State Normal School and University of Utah, 
Salt Lake City 

Smiru, J. Fewson (J. Fewson), C. E., Salt Lake City 

Wacker, Lieut. Kenzie W. (Kenzie W ), Fort Duchesne 

Witkes, Edmund, 324 and 325 Atlas Block. 131 4 East street, Salt 
Lake City 


VERMONT 


Hemenway, Dr L. H. (Lewis Hunt), Manchester 

Howarp, Gen. 0. 0. (O— O ), 156 College street, Burlington 

Proctor, Fletcher D. (Fletcher Dutton), Proctor 

Ricuarpson, Mrs F. A. (Harriette Byron Taber), 52 Williams street, 
Burlington 

Srevens, Wm. Stanford (William Stanford), St Albans 


68 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


VIRGINIA 


Bain, George McK. (George McK ), Norfolk High School, Norfolk 

Cronk, C. P. (Corydon Pirnie), Weather Bureau, Cape Henry 

Der Wrrr, Lt. Col. Calvin, Fortress Monroe 

Dosir, Richard N. (Richard N——), 173 Main st. 82 Bute st., Norfoll 

GitmER, Wm. W. (William Wirt), u.s.n., Main street, Chatham 

Hancr, Theo. F. (Theodore F——), Bureau of Pensions. Cherrydale 

Humpureys, D. C. (David Carlisle), Washington & Lee Univ., Lexington 

Jones, Jno. T. (John Thomas), Gayton 

Krisp, Mrs A. FE, City National Bank, cor. Main and Atlantic streets, 
Norfolk. 517 Mowbray Arch, Ghent 

McBrypr, J. M. (John MacLaren), Va. Polytechnic Inst., Blacksburg 

Sweitzer, Lt. C. McG. (Charles McGregor), Leesburg 

Wessrer, Harrie, W. R. Trigg Company, Richmond 

Wisp, Capt.W. C.(W 0; ),U.S.S. “Franklin,” Navy Yard, Norfolk 


WASHINGTON 


ARNOLD, Sydney, Box 3808, Yakima avenue, North Yakima 

CARLISLE, Sam’] 8. (Samuel Stuart), Rooms 53-54 Haller Building; 
NW. cor. 2 ave. and Columbia st. 31 ave. near Jefferson st., Seattle 

CARROLL, Jas. (James), 84 Yesler Way. Occidental Hotel, corner 3 
avenue and Cherry street, Seattle 

CarRo_., P. P. (Patrick Pittman), 72 Hinckley Block, southwest corner 
2 avenue and Columbia street. 1432 16 avenue, Seattle 

Fisken, John B. (John B——), Washington Water Power Co.,; Spokane 

GLENDINNING, James, Spokane 

Jounson, Chas. (Charles), Lakeside 

Lanpes, Henry, Univ. of Washington. 4503 Brooklyn avenue, Seattle 

Loomis, Prof. Henry B. (Henry B ), Seattle 

McKesr, Redick H. (Redick Henry), 606 Minor avenue, Seattle 

Romine, A. P. (A—— P ), New Whatcom High School, New Whatcom 

SHEDD, S. (Solon), Washington Agricultural College, Pullman 

Srewart, Chas. (Charles), Weather Bureau, 705 Riverside avenue. 
Van Valkenberg Building, 715 Riverside avenue, Spokane 

Stone, George F. (George Fisher), 157 Yesler Way. 203 14 avenue 
North, Seattle : 

Waueu, James C. (James Church), Gates street. 2 street, Mount Vernon 

WIcKERSHAM, James, Tacoma 

Youne, E. Weldon (Hdward Weldon), No. 234-285 Pioneer Building. 
1023 Columbia street, Seattle 


WESL VIRGINIA 69 


WEST VIRGINIA 


ASHENBERGER, Albert, Davis ave. Hotel Randolph, R. R. ave., Elkins 

Bass, Charles M. (Charles Montgomery), Falls 

Brown, Samuel B. (Samuel Boardman),West Virginia University. 640 
North High street, Morgantown 

DanprivGr, Mrs Danske, Shepherdstown 

Hopxins, A. D. (Andrew Delmar), West Virginia Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 4381 Willey street, Morgantown 

Jounson, Prof. Okey, Morgantown 

Warts, Prof. I. C. (Israel C 


), Morgantown 


WISCONSIN 


Brown, Frank G. (Frank G ), Madison 

CoLuin, Geo. L. (George Lucius), Beloit Collegé. 920 College ave., Beloit 

Der Riemer, Miss Alicia, State Normal Sch. 912 Clark st., Stevens Point 

Hanks, L. 8. (Lucien Stanley), 7 Pinckney st. 216 Langdon st., Madison 

Hosorru, L. C. (Ludvig Christian), 817 E. Columbian avenue, Neenah 

Jounson, J. B. (John Butler), Univ. of Wis. 423 N. Carroll st., Madison 

MarsHatt, 8. H. (Samuel Hager), Maple Bluff Farm, Madison 

Merritt, J. A. (James Andrew), Normal School. 1124 Ogden avenue, 
West Superior 

Mitrer, B. K. (Benjamin Kurtz), 102 Wisconsin street. 559 Marshall 
street, Milwaukee 

Nicuotson, D. P. (Dexter Putnam), Lawrence University. 504 John 
street, Appleton 

Onin, John M. (John M ), 762 Langdon street, Madison 

Paut, Miss Anne M. (Anne M——), 1133 Cass street, La Crosse 

Pootr, Maj. De W. C. (De W—— C——.), Madison 

Ricuarpson, H. P. (H P—), 102 Wisconsin street, Milwaukee 

Suiru, F. C. (Frank Clemes), Richland Center 

Smirn, Howard L. (Howard Leslie), Law Building, University of Wis- 
consin. 222 Langdon street, Madison. 

Srrvens, B. J. (Breese Jacob), Mendota block. 401 N. Carroll street, 
Madison 

Van Hisn, C. R. (Charles Richard), Science Hall, University of Wiscon- 
sin. 630 Francis street, Madison 

Vinas, Wm. F. (William Freeman), 12 E. Gilman street, Madison 


WYOMING 


Bonp, Fred, Capitol Building. 802 East 18 street, Cheyenne 
Kyigut, Wilbur C. (Wilbur Clinton), University of Wyoming. 914 
Grand avenue, Laramie 


70 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Man .ey, Frank A. (Frank Austin), Rock Springs, Wyoming 

Mearns, Edgar A. (Edgar Alexander), Fort Yellowstone 

Monpe 1, F. W. (Frank Wheeler), House of Representatives, Washing- 
ton, D. C. Newcastle 

Mouck, W. E. (William Eaton), Cambria 

Waaaener, R. A. (Rudolf Andreas), Mammoth Hot Springs. Yellow- 
stone National Park 

Wotte, Lewis T. (Lewis Theodore), Cambria 


ALASKA 


Anprews, C. L. (Clarence Leroy), U.S. Customs Office, Skagway 
ForsyTHr, Miss Mell, P. O. Box 68, Skagway 

GrorGEson, C. C. (Charles Christian), Dept. of Agriculture, Sitka 
GLENN, Capt. E. F. (a EF ), T'yoonok, Cooks Inlet 
Jarvis, D. H. (David Henry), Sitka 


AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 


Maxwett, Dr W. (Walter), Sugar Bureau, Bundaberg, Queensland, Aus- 
tralia 
Narn, Robert, F. R.G.S. Eng., Hastings, New Zealand 


BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS 


Frey, Emil, Berne, Switzerland 

Hinz, Frank D. (Frank Davis), 766 Xeizersgracht. Amstet Hotel, 1 
Tulpplein, Amsterdam, Netherlands 

Recius, Elisée (Hlisée Jacques), 85 rue Ernest Allard, Institut Géo- 
graphique. 27 rue du Lac, Bruxelles, Belgium 


BRAZIL 


AGNEW, Samuel H. (Samuel H——), Natal Estado do, Rio Grande de 
Norte, Brazil 

De Carya.uHo, Alfredo, C. E., Rua Barao de Victoria 19, Pernambuco, 
Brazil 

Dery, Orville A. (Orville A——), Sao Paulo. Brazil 

Dr Metro, Barao Homern, 63 Praca do Republica, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 

Forres, Dr Joas Nepomuceno, care of 8. 8. Schindler, Bahia, Brazil 

Wittirams, H. E. (Horace Elbert), ““A Commissao Geographica e Geo- 
logica de 8. Paulo,” 14 Visconde do Rio Branco. 99 rua General 
Jardim, Sao Paulo, Brazil 


BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA, NEWFOUNDLAND, AND NOVA SCOTIA 


Betxi, Dr Robert, Director Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada 
Bureess, Dy T. J. W. (Thomas Joseph Workman), Protestant Hospital 
for Insane, Montreal, Quebec, Canada 


= 
CANADA, ETC. 71 


Caixin, John B. (John Burgess), Fern Hill, Truro, Nova Scotia 

Camppe Lt, A. M. (Archibald Macdiarmid), Secretary’s Branch, P. O. Dept. 
70 Gloucester street, Ottawa, Canada 

CamPpBeELL, Geo. M. (George Murray), 407 Brunswick street, Halifax, 
Nova Scotia 

Crane, Alice Rollins, Dawson City, Yukon, Canada 

CREELMAN,W. A. (W A ), High Sch., North Sydney, Nova Scotia 

Currin, P.W. (Peter William), Department of Interior. 114 Gloucester 
street, Ottawa, Canada 

Devitrr, Edouard, Dept. of Interior. 60 Lisgar street, Ottawa, Canada 

Dick, Alexander, Sydney, Nova Scotia 

Dovutt, Wm. M. (William M ), Room 56, Canada Life Building, 
Montreal, Canada 

Dowutina, D. B. (Donaldson Bogart), Geological Survey Department, 
Sussex st. 289 McLeod st., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Drewry, W.S. (W— S85 ), New Denver, British Columbia 

Fawcerr, Thomas, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada 

Fearon, James, Inst. for the Deaf, Gottingen st., Halifax, Nova Scotia 

Frrcx, A. W. (Andrew Walker), Central Chambers, Elgin street. 500 
Willrod street, Ottawa, Canada 

Friercuer, James, Central Experimental farm, Ottawa, Canada 

Fosrer, John G. (John Gilman), U. S. Consulate, 108 Granville street. 
97 Hollis street, Halifax, Nova Scotia 

Kine, W. F. (W F ), Department of Interior, Ottawa, Canada 

Kiorz, Otto J. (Otto Julius), Department of Interior. 437 Albert street, 
Ottawa, Canada 

Lonetey, J. W. (J W. ), Halifax, Nova Scotia 

Lyman, Henry H. (Henry Herbert), F. R. G.S., 884 St Paul street. 74 
MeTavish street, Montreal, Canada 

Mackay, A. H. (Alexander Howard), 201 Hollis street, Halifax. Corner 
Edward and Church street, Dartmouth, Halifax county, Nova Scotia 

MacRan, George (George Farquhar), Baddeck, Victoria county, Nova 
Scotia 

McCurpy, Arthur W. (Arthur Williams), Baddeck, Nova Scotia 

McLeop, C. H. (Clement Henry), McGill College. Carlton Road, Mon- 
treal, Canada 

Muny, Mrs Alex. G. (Alex. G 
foundland 

Oainyir, Comm’r William, Dawson, Yukon Territory, Canada 

OpprenuerMer, I. (Isaac), Powell street. Hotel Vancouver, Vancouver, 
British Calumbia 

Ourram, Fred. P. (Frederick Panton), 148 Hollis street. 16 Hollis street, 
Halifax, Nova Scotia 

Prarcr, Wm. (William), Calgary, Alta. Bow Bend Shack, Calgary, 
Canada 


), “ Braehead.”” Harbour Grace, New- 


2 MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


SI 


Pearson, B. F. (Benjamin Franklyn), 45 Sackville street. ‘“‘ Ernscotte,” 


Franklyn street, Halifax, Nova Scotia 

Poon, Henry 8. (Henry Skeffington), 162 Pleasant street, Halifax, Nova 
Scotia : 

Ross, W. B. (William Benjamin), 41 Barrington street. 74 Morris street, 
Halifax, Nova Scotia 

Sanps, H. Hayden (H— Hayden), 167 Stanley st., Montreal, Canada 

Satnt-Cyr, Arthur, Department of the Interior. 159 Water street, 
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

SrnEcaL, C. Omer (Clovis Omer), Geological Survey of Canada. 547 
Sussex street. No. 62 Daly avenue, Ottawa, Canada 

Simons, Theodore, Sandor, British Columbia 

Turts, J. F. (John Freeman), Acadia College. Wolfville, Nova Scotia 

Wuitcuer, A. H. (Arthur Henry), Topographical Surveys, Department 
of the Interior, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 


COLOMBIA, COSTA RICA, AND VENEZUELA 


Prirrier, H. (Henry Francis Pittier de Fabrega), Instituto Jisico-Geo- 
grafico de Costa Rica. San José de Costa Rica, C. A. 

PLuMAcHER, Capt. EH. H. (Eugene Herman), United States Consul, 
Maracaibo, Venezuela, South America 

WirHrow, Charles L. (Charles L ), Prop. Poco Monte Planta. Bocas 
del Toro, Colombia, South America 


CHINA AND JAPAN 


AnpreEws, Mrs Elizabeth 8. (Elizabeth S——), 105 C. Bluff, Yokohama, 
Japan 

Gaskin, Miss F. J. (#—— J——), care of Wisner & Co., Shanghai, China 

O'Leary, Asst. Paym. T. 8. (T—— S8——), U.S. Naval Hospital, Yoko- 
hama, Japan 

Suicemt, K. (Keisei), Joshi Gakuin, 33 Kami Ni Bancho, Kojimachiku. 
61 Shimo Ni Bancho Kojimachiku, Tokyo, Japan 

Squires, Herbert G. (Herbert G ), U.S. Legation, Pekin, China 


ENGLAND 


Bacon, H. B. (Hackley Bartholomew), Ventnor, Isle of Wight, England 

Bacon, G. W. (George Washington), 127 Strand, London. 101 Ridgway, 
Wimbledon, England 

Breui, Dr William A. (William A——), Pendell Court, Bletchingley. 

CLARKE, Rev. C. Pickering (Charles Pickering), University College, Sur- 
rey. Oxon, Holy Trinity Parsonage, Wimbledon, Surrey, England 

Crover, Richardson, vu. s. N., Naval Attaché, U. 8. Embassy, London, 
England 


Co 


ENGLAND ike 


Compron, Col. C. E. (Clarles Elmer), u. s. a., London, EK. C., England 

Herpert-Jonrs, W. (W ), 46 Albany Mansions, London, §. W., 
England 

Hoover, Mrs Lou Henry, care of Benick Moreing & Co., 20 Capthall 
avenue, London, EH. C., England 

Lanepon, Col. L. L. (L L ), care of J. S. Morgan & Co., 22 Old 
Broad street, London, E. C., England 

Scarrr, Walter B. (Walter B ), eare of Brown, Shipley & Co., 123 
Pall Mall, London, 8. W., England 

Workman, Fanny Bullock, care of Brown, Shipley & Co., 128 Pall Mall, 
London, Eneland 


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liam street, New York City. 18 Avenue d’Antin, Paris, France 
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Hotel Columbia, 18 Avenue Kleber, Paris 
Jackson, John B. (John Brinckerhoff), 68 Unter den Linden. 3 Bis- 
marckstrasse, N. W., Berlin, Germany 

Lounat, Due de, 47 rue Dumont d‘Urville, Paris, France 

Waurrer, And. D. (Andrew Dickson), 68 Unter den Linden. American 
Embassy, Berlin, Germany 


HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 


Bonp, Dr B. D. (Benjamin Davis), Kohala, Hawaii, Territory of Hawaii 

Surru, Jared G. (Jared Gage), Hawaii Experiment Stat’n, Honolulu, H.T. 

Tuurston, L. A. (Lorrin Andrews), The Stangenwald, Merchant street. 
Bates street, Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii 

Woop, Edgar, Normal School, corner Fort and School streets. Emma 
street, Fern Place, Hawaiian Islands 


MEXICO 


Anprrson, I. M. (I—— M——.), City of Mexico, Mexico 

Barrineron, Edward, Tierra Blanca, State of Vera Cruz, Mexico 
Bropin, Walter M. (Walter Martin), Guanajuato, Mexico 

Burr, G. A. (G— A——), Parral, Mexico 

Dr Arozarpna, R. M. (R M ), City of Mexico, Mexico 

Facto, Raf. Garcia y 8., Calle de Ortega 5, City of Mexico, Mexico 
Furness, Dwight, Guanajuato, Mexico 

Kineman, Lewis, Gen. Office Mexican Central R’y, City of Mexico, D. F. 
KirRKLAND, F. S. (F 5 ), Chihuahua, Mexico 

Lupiow, Edwin, Las Esperanzas, Coahuila, Mexico 


6 


Ta MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Moynan, John J. (John Jeremiah), 3 Calle de Limantour 7. Avenida 
Madrid 21, City of Mexico, Mexico 

Nickerson, H. R. (Hiram Robert), care of Mexican Central Railway, 
Limited, Firet Bucareti 2, City of Mexico, Mexico 

Parsons, Dr A. W. (A W ), City of Mexico, Mexico 

Ripenack, Dr Geo. A. (George A——), care of S. Pearson & Son, Lim- 
ited, Salina Cruz, Oaxaca, Mexico 

SrapLes, W. O. (William Oscar), 825 Avenida Juarez. 824 Avenida 
Balderas, City of Mexico, Mexico 

Wess, Henry P. (Henry Pusey), Calle Ortega 28. Avenida Londres 
635, City of Mexico, Mexico 

WermPLe, Ross, 1 Calle-de San Francisco 14. 1 Calle de Colon 8, City of 
Mexico, Mexico : 


' PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


AHERN, George P. (George Patrick), Forestry Bureau, Manila, Philippine 
Islands 

AuLin, Henry T. (Henry Tureman), Headquarters of Constabulary. 
119 Malacafian, Manila, Philippine Islands 

Barrows, David P. (Dayid Prescott), 216 Calle Nueva Malate, Manila, 
Philippine Islands 

Barrows, Dr D. P. (D P—), Manila, Philippine Islands 

Burrrirr, Charles H. (Charles Henry), 358 Calle Cabildo. Hotel de 
France, 202 Calle Solana, Manila, Philippine Islands 

CrimMiys, Lieut. Martin L. (Martin L ). Manila, Philippine Islands 

Founrain, S. W. (Samuel Warren), u.s. a., Zamboanga, Mindanao, 
Philippine Islands 

GLAssForD, Major W. A. (William Alexander), Headquarters Division 
Philippines, 39 Calle Nozaleda, Manila, Philippine Islands 

Goprrey, Col. B.S. (E SI ), Manila, Philippine Islands 

~ Kenty, Lieut. W. Lacy (W Lacy), Manila, Philippine Islands 

Pravu, James F. (James Francis), U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Ma- 
nila, Philippine Islands 

Putnam, G. R. (G R ), Coast and Geodetic Survey, Manila, P. I. 

Russeiy, Lt. Col. A. H. (Andrew Howland), Ordnance Dept., Manila, P. I. 

Srepver, EK. Z. (Hdgar Zell), Manila, Philippine Islands 

Symes, Whitman, care Atlantic, Gulf & Pacifie Co., cor. Malecon Drive 
and Pasig River, Manila, Philippine Islands 

Wrient, Lieut. E. 8. (Ez 5 ), Manila, Philippine Islands 


RUSSIA, SWEDEN, AND ISLAND OF MALTA 


Crapp, Henry L. (Henry Lyman), Villa Zammit, Island of Malta 
Greener, Richard T. (Richard Theodore), Vladivostok. House Nor- 
lander, Pavloski street, E. Siberia, Russia 


SWEDEN 75 


feck, M. de (Maximilien de), Stockholm. Strandviigen, 53, Stockholm, 
— Sweden 


WEST INDIES 


EXANDER, William H. (William H——), 5 Allen street, San Juan, 
~ Porto Rico 

RossweLL, Dr L. Oliver (JA— Oliver), Turks Island, West Indies 
Gunz, H. (1 ), Caibarien, Cuba 

O'DonneLt, J. J. (John Joseph), U. 8. Weather Bureau Office. Kirn 
Cottage, Strathclyde, Barbados, West Indies 

nyper, Nicholas R. (Nicholas Roland), Fitchfield Hotel, Port Antonio, 
Jamaica, West Indies 

‘Sorernou, Ysidoro, Caibarien, Cuba 


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PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, WASHINGTON, Dy -Gse3 


FNATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC 
AGAZINEJ 


Vol. XIV FEBRUARY, 1903 No. 2 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 


PILOT CHART OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN FOR 
FEBRUARY, 1903 : ; : i : ; 4 A Supplement 
w 
)) THE GREAT TURK AND HIS LOST PROVINCES. BY WILLIAM 
: E. CURTIS. ILLUSTRATED 4 : : : ; : 


w 
THE WORK OF THE U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE. BY COM- 
MANDER W.H.H. SOUTHERLAND, U.S.N., HY DROGRAPHER 

Ae 


WHY GREAT SALT LAKE HAS FALLEN 
aw 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 
w 


GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 
wv 


: NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


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Wor. XIV; No. 2 


WASHINGTON 


FEBRUARY, 1903 


MAGA ZIUNIE, 


iEaGRE Ad BURK AND HIs LOST 
PROVINCES 


By Witi1am E. Curris 


HE next, like the last, battle- 
ground of Europe will be the 

Balkan Peninsula, a group of 

petty states lying in the southeastern 
corner of Kurope, bounded on the north 
by the Danube River, on the south by 
Greece and the A/gean Sea, on the east 
by the Black Sea, and on the west by 
the Adriatic. It is one of the oldest, 
yet one of the most primitive, portions 
of Europe, comprising the ancient Mace- 
donian Empire. The people are de- 
scribed by Pliny and Herodotus. ‘They 
fought Darius the Persian, and Alex- 
ander the Great. Julius Czesar was 
planning a campaign against them when 
he fell in the forum with the dagger of 
Brutus in his breast. The story of the 
adventures of the Emperor Trajan 
among them is carved upon that mar- 
velous column in Rome. ‘Theirs was 
the last province to be added to the 
Roman Empire and the first to go to its 
dissolution. They then fell into the 
hands of the Turks, and for century 
after century submitted to the yoke of 
the Sultan, and were gradually sub- 
merged in political, moral, intellectual, 
and commercial oblivion. The exist- 


ence of this once powerful people was 
almost forgotten until the Bulgarian 
atrocities, as they were called, excited 
universal horror twenty-five years ago 
and Russia intervened on the pretext of 
racial and religious relationship and 
attempted to take them away from Tur- 
key ; but the other powers of Europe 
prevented the Czar from enjoying the 
fruits of his victory over the Sultan and 
refused to permit him to have a port 
upon the Mediterranean. Ancient 
Macedonia was cut in half. ‘The upper 
part was made an independent kingdom, 
called Bulgaria. ‘The lower half, famil- 
iarly known as Macedonia, was restored 
to Turkey upon solemn stipulations 
that the people should have a Christian 
governor and a just and liberal govern- 
ment. That territory which appears 
upon the map as Eastern Roumelia, has 
recently attracted much attention from 
the civilized world because of the kid- 
napping of Miss Stone, an American 
missionary. 


BOSNIA AS AN AUSTRIAN PROVINCE 


Bosnia, the westernmost of the Turk- 
ish provinces, was placed under the pro- 


46 


tection of Austria, and has been the 


scene of a remarkable transformation ° 


from one of the most unhappy and hope- 
less places on earth to one of the most 
peaceful and prosperous. It isthe more 
interesting because it happens to be 
the first Turkish province that was ever 
wellgoverned. Nowhere else in Europe 
has there been so rapid an increase in 
population and wealth, and the pictur- 
esque old towns are taking on an air of 
activity. While subject to the Turks 
Bosnia practically vanished from the 
current of civilization until 1875, when, 
exasperated by extortion, robbery, ra- 
pine, murder, and religious persecution, 
the people rose in rebellion. The pow- 
ers of Europe placed them under the 
protection of Austria, which has given 
the most remarkable exhibition of ad- 
ministrative reform known to modern 
history, and has demonstrated the possi- 
bility of governing alien races by justice 
and benevolence. 

“* Where the Turks are, there also are 
the wolves,’’ isa Bosnian proverb. An- 
other says: ‘‘ Where the hoof of the 
Turkish horse strikes, the crops will 
come up very thin.’’ ‘Those proverbs 
were illustrated in an unmistakable man- 
ner in Bosnia, but one who visits that 
country today can scarcely believe that 
such conditions existed there only a 
short time ago. There were no rail- 
roads and few wagon roads. Brigandage 
was a recognized profession. Robbery 
was as common as lying. Murder was 
not considered a crime, and the number 
killed by the soldiers or by each other 
was not recorded. ‘The British consul 
reported to his government that the 
average was ten thousand a year. Those 
who were compelled to travel went in 
large parties fully armed; farmers dared 
not build their cabins where they could 
be seen from the highway, and women 
never appeared in public alone, because 
it was unsafe. ‘Today human life is as 
safe in Bosnia as it is in Illinois, and 
travel is even safer there, because there 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


has never been a train robbery in that 
country. During the last ten years, out 
of a population of nearly two millions, 
the homicides have averaged only six a 
year, and in 1900 there were only two. 
There has been no case of highway rob- 
bery since 1895, and in 1900 but one 
case of burglary. Other crimes are 
equally rare. 

The people are peaceful and con- 
tented. The cities are filled with new 
and handsome houses, factories have 
been built to utilize the water power, a 
university, colleges, schools of engineer- 
ing, agriculture, and manual training 
have been established to qualify the peo- 
ple to make the most intelligent use of 
their opportunities. The population is 
almost evenly divided between the Mos- 
lem, Orthodox Greek, and Christian 
churches, with a few thousand Protest- 
ants and Jews. Members of the differ- 
ent religions mingle on amicable terms 
and show mutual respect and toleration. 
The courts are wisely and justly admin- 
istered; justice is awarded to every citi- 
zen regardless of his religion, wealth, 
or social position; taxes are low and 
honestly collected and economically dis- 
bursed. The people have learned for 
the first time that honest complaints 
will be patiently listened to, and that 
wrongs will be remedied. Although 
the older peasants are still ignorant, 
backward, and distrustful, the younger 
generation show enterprise and ambi- 
tion and are conducting their affairs with 
intelligence and order. 

Enlightened Mohammedans have ob- 
served the advantages of the social, ag: 
ricultural, and administrative reforms, 
and while no adult Moslem was ever 
converted to Christianity, they are 
adopting the customs and habits of the 
western world. ‘The lives of the women 
are becoming enlarged. The wives and 
daughters of the Turks still wear veils 
in the streets, but are being released 
from the degrading position they occupy 
in all the lands of Islam. 


THe Great Turk anp His Lost Provinces 


Under Turkish rule all public wor- 
ship was forbidden except that of Islam, 
and Christians and Jews were obliged 
to say their prayers in secret and pay 
blackmail to the local magistrates for 
the privilege. They were known as 
Rayahs—the word means ransomed— 
because, meriting death, they purchased 
permission to live by paying tribute. 
Western Christians do not appreciate 
the religious heroism which the poor 
peasants, not of Bosnia only, but of 
Bulgaria, Macedonia, and other Balkan 
provinces, have displayed during the 
long centuries they have suffered from 
the persecution of the Turks. They 
have lived in daily dread of martyrdom, 
yet have clung to their faith, when at 
any moment they might have secured 
safety, prosperity, and position by re- 
canting and accepting the religion of 
their oppressors. These conditions still 
exist in Macedonia, and in Roumania 
the Jews are suffering more from the 
Christians than they ever suffered in 
Bosnia from the Turks. The Christians 
do not kill with the sword nor destroy 
with the torch, nor do they steal women 
for their harems, but they debar their 
Jewish fellow-beings from labor, drive 
them to distress and starvation, deprive 
them of education and the privilege of 
worship. 

Through all the centuries that Bos- 
nia was controlled by the Turks the 
people were without morality, educa- 
tion, arts, or sciences, and their indus- 
try was limited to the supply of their 
own wants, simply because when they 
possessed something they did not actu- 
ally need, it attracted the rapacity of 
the officials. Occasionally some man 
like Nikola Tesla, the famous electri- 
cian, who is a native of Bosnia, broke 
through the restrictions and found an 
opportunity to develop his genius else- 
where; but under the Turks such cases 
were few. 

Much of the cruelties endured by the 
people formerly were due to religious 


Ae] 


fanaticism. A peculiar sect of der- 
vishes, called Ghazi, are holy men who 
go forth to slay the enemies of the 
Prophet until they are themselves slain, 
and as long as such fanatics are allowed 
to invade Christian communities, there 
can beno peace. Religious fanatics who 
commit murder for the faith in Bosnia 
are sentenced to have their bodies cre- 
mated afterexecution. ‘This has driven 
them fromthe country. It is a punish- 
ment they dread more thandeath. To 
hang or shoot a Mohammedan is simply 
to send him to the paradise he is seek- 
ing, where he will rise again in his nat- 
ural body in the presence of the Prophet. 
But if his body is burned or destroyed 
by any means, it is impossible for him 
to be translated, and his soul will re- 
main forever in suspense. 

Bosnia is broken by high peaks, deep 
glens, ridges, beautiful wooded hills, 
winding streams, and rich alluvial 
basins, which yield large crops of grain 
and are especially adapted tofruit. The 
landscape is a series of terraces which 
slope gradually southward and finally 
disappear in an archipelago of lovely 
islands, one of the most enchanting 
pictures in the universe, whose attrac- 
tions have been the theme of poets ever 
since the days of Homer. It was on 
this coast during the Roman occupation 
that the Roman Emperor Diocletian 
erected his magnificent palace, which 
covered ten acres of ground, and for size, 
magnificence, and architectural display 
surpassed all human dwellings. ‘The 
ruins are still sufficiently well preserved 
to fascinate the artist, the architect, and 
the archeologist, but the marble is be- 
ing rapidly carried away to Italy and 
Austria for building material. 

Sarajevo, the capital, is a city of 
60,000 inhabitants, reached by a narrow- 
gauge road winding among the moun- 
tain gorges like the Colorado railways 
until it reaches the Adriatic at Metkovic, 
the port of Bosnia. ‘The journey is in- 
teresting ; the scenery is picturesque, 


48 


but that which most attracts the Amer- 


ican traveler is the transformation of 


medieval castles into paper mills, tan- 
neries, cigarette factories, woolen mills, 
and other practical purposes. Most of 
these enterprises have been aided by 
government subsidies, for the Austrians 
have considered it wise to encourage the 
introduction of foreign capital and im- 
migration by offering substantial in- 
ducements in the way of free land and 
buildings, exemption from taxation and 
financial assistance. In this way they 
have provided employment for the 
women and others who are incapable 
of manual labor, and have afforded a 
ready and profitable market for agri- 
cultural products. There is excellent 
water power everywhere. Very little 
raw material is now shipped from 
Bosnia. The hides are tanned at home; 
the wool is woven into blankets, rugs, 
and carpets; the tobacco is manufact- 
ured into cigars and cigarettes; the 
wheat into flour ; the fruit and vegeta- 
bles are preserved, and all other pro- 
ceeds of agricultural labor are increased 
in value and manufactured into market- 
able merchandise before they leave the 
country. Prunes are the largest item 
of export, and $1,500,000 worth were 
sold in the European markets in 1go1. 
Beet-sugar factories have now been 
erected, and experts have been brought 
from Italy to educate the natives in the 
cultivation of silk. 

In Sarajevo the ancient and the mod- 
ern meet ; the Hast and the West touch 
hands; the oriental with eternal com- 
posure listens to the chatter of the 
Frenchman and regards the gesticula- 
tions of the Italian with supreme con- 
tempt. ‘The town is half Turkish and 
half Austrian. The old part looks like 
Damascus and the new part like Buda- 
pest, which, in many respects, is the 
handsomest city in the world. I was 
told that Sarajevo contained a larger 
- variety of types of the original oriental 
races than even Constantinople, and 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


that in the bazaars may be seen daily 
examples of every national costume 
worn from the Straits of Gibraltar to 
the Yellow Sea of China; and they all 
live together 1n peace and harmony, 
each recognizing the scruples of the 
other, permitting him to practice in 
peace the creed and customs of his 
faith. 

Sarajevo compares well in architect- 
ure and in other respects with any 
other city of its size in Europe or Amer- 
ica, and will some time be a beautiful 
and popular place, for it is much favored 
by nature, and the inhabitants are rap- 
idly accumulating wealth. There are 
mosques with minarets and domes, 
churches of every religion, fine office 
buildings, apartment-houses, govern- 
ment edifices, and public institutions. 
The city hall is a beautiful modern 
structure of the oriental type, and the 
Scheriatschule or law college is imposing. 

The old part of the city consists of 
crooked and narrow streets, lined with 
shops and bazaars opening upon the 
sidewalks, asin all orientaltowns. The 
merchants and mechanics squat on their 
haunches or sit cross-legged as they 
make and sell their wares, but it is not 
sage for a stranger to purchase souve- 
nirs of the country in those shops unless 
he sees them made, b2cause most of the 
stock comes from the factories of Ger- 
many, France, and Austria. ‘The dif- 
ferent trades are governed by guilds, as 
was formerly the rule throughout Eu- 
rope. Each guild has a patron saint 
and a long list of officers, who fix prices 
and profits, regulate wages, appoint ap- 
prentices, and decide disputes; but there 
is no eight-hour law. The busy arti- 
sans keep at it from daybreak to bed- 
time, seldom knocking off except to say 
their prayers at the nearest mosque, or 
drink a cup of coffee and make a cigar- 
ette at the nearest café. 

The population of Bosnia at the time 
of the revolution is unknown. ‘There 
had never been a census. More than 


arg} 


Tue Great Turk anp His Lost Provinces 


A Jewish Cemetery, Bosnia 


50 


two hundred thousand people fled across 


the border during the ten years previous 
to the Turko-Russian war to escape the 
cruelties and extortions of the Turks, 
and at its close the inhabitants had prob- 
ably been reduced to less than eight 
hundred thousand. In 1900 the popu- 


lation had increased to nearly two mil- 
lions, and is growing at the rate of about 
ten per cent a year, including represent- 


Tue Nationa, GEocRAPHIc MAGAZINE 


lem recognized the importance of a fact 
which many rulers in all parts of the 
world and at all periods have forgotten 
or overlooked, that conscience and: re- 
ligion lie deeper than any other influ- 
ences that affect human action. 

One of the most novel peculiarities of 
paternalism is the erection of fine hotels 
in different parts of the province in order 
that people who visit the country may 


Government Hotels, Bosnia 


atives of every religion, especially Jews 
from Russiaand Roumania. The Jewish 
burying ground is a curious place, ordi- 
nary granite boulders being used for 
headstones. ‘The government respects 
the religious scruples of every citizen, 
and adjusts its laws and judicial pro- 
ceedings to the requirements of the 
different faiths. The Austrian states- 
men who have solved the Bosnian prob- 


be made comfortable and leave with 
pleasant impressions. These hotels are 
well kept, charge reasonable rates, and 
have not only been one of the most 
effective influences in bringing capital 
and new enterprises into Bosnia, but 
have been a profitable investment to the 
government. 

Another interesting and novel feature 
of the administration concerns the mili- 


THe Great Turk anp His Lost PRoviIncgEs 


tary. Every young man must serve five 
years inthe army. At eighteen he en- 
ters the active service for two years, and 
then serves for three years in the reserve 
corps, which is mobilized for two or 
three weeks annually for drill and in- 
struction ; but no Bosnian soldier serves 
in his own country. He is sent to 
Austria or Hungary and stationed in 
some large town, where he can have an 
opportunity to rub up against the people 
and learn by imitation what he cannot 
be taught at home. If he marries an 
Austrian girl, he is allowed double pay, 
is exempt from certain guard duty, his 
wife is permitted to live in the barracks 
with him, and is employed as a cook or 
laundress or in some other capacity. 
Thus a great majority of the young 
men who leave Bosnia for military serv- 
ice return with Austrian wives and settle 
down as valuable citizens in the old 
towns. On the other hand, all military 
duty in Bosnia is performed by Austrian 
soldiers, who are offered similar induce- 
ments to marry Bosnian girls, and if 
they settle down in the province per- 
manently, the government gives them 
farms or homes. ‘Thus the country is 
not only being settled by an excellent 
class of young people, but the ties of 
relationship are linking it more closely 
to Austria every year. 

One of the most interesting towns is 
Jajce, where St Luke is believed to 
have lived and died and to have been 
buried. Helena, the daughter of the 
last of the ancient kings of Bosnia, was 
given the remains of the apostle as a 
part of her dowry, and when Jajce was 
captured by the Turks, she escaped by 
a miracle and carried them with her to 
a convent at Padua, Italy. 


BULGARIA 


Bulgaria is about the size and shape 
of Pennsylvania, with nearly the same 
population, and its forests and rivers, 
the mountain ranges and rich valleys 
that lie between them remind one of 


51 


the Quaker state. The Danube River 
forms the northern boundary and car- 
ries most of the commerce of the coun- 
try, and along its banks are some fine 
old Romanruins. Three-fourths of the 
population are engaged in agriculture 
and pastoral pursuits, cultivating little 
farms and following flocks and herds 
which graze at large. Theoretically 
all of the land belongs to the state, and 
those who occupy it pay one-fourth of 
all their produce for rent and taxes. 
The principal products are wheat, wool, 
and the oil of roses, which comes from 
the provinces bordering on the Black 
Sea. Philippopolis, a famous old town 
founded by Philip of Macedon 350 B.C., 
the second city in population and im- 
portance, is the center of the industry, 
and from that point eastward the entire 
kingdom is arose garden. Roses are 
cultivated like grapes in France and 
Italy, so that all of the strength of the 
sap may go into the flowers, and in the 
summer women pluck the flowers as 
they reach maturity. ‘Thousands of 
tons of rose leaves are gathered annu- 
ally. The petals are carefully removed 
and the oil extracted from them by 
distillation. The oil sells from $50 to 
¢g100 a pound, according to its purity 
and specific gravity. A single drop 
will perfume a two-ounce bottle of 
alcohol. 

The peasants of Bulgaria are indus- 
trious, ingenious, and intelligent. Both 
men and women are of fine physique, 
capable of great endurance, and few are 
idle, intemperate, or vicious. I saw 
but three or four beggars all the time I 
was in Bulgaria, and they were crip- 
ples. The women do their share of 
work on the farms, and never seem to 
be idle a moment. They spin as they 
walk along the highways and as they 
sit behind piles of fruit and vegetables 
in the markets. Most of the shepherds 
you see from the highways are women 
and children. The large herds in the 
mountains are kept by well-grown boys, 


52 


who sleep in the open air with sheep- 
skins wrapped around them. 

Hospitality is based upon the ancient 
oriental laws. No stranger is ever 
turned from the door if he comes in 
peace. The poorest peasant will share 
blanket and bread without the asking, 
and no visitor leaves a cabin without 
being offered a bunch of grapes, a mug 
of milk, or at least a glass of water. 
Each family has at least one pair of 
oxen, forty or fifty sheep, besides cattle, 
goats, pigs, geese, and chickens. Fruit 
is plentiful. The southern slopes of 
the Balkan Mountains are clad with 
vines, and the grapes produce an excel- 
lent wine. Tobacco and cotton grow 
well and all the vegetables known to 
temperate zones. 

The great majority of the people be- 
long to the Orthodox Greek Church ; 
not more than one-fifth are Moslems. 
Their patron saint is St John of Ryle, a 
monk, who lived in a hollow oak in the 
mountains. A monastery, built upon 
the site of his retreat, is an enormous 
building of medieval architecture, fre- 
quently visited by tourists, who are hos- 
pitably entertained by the monks. It re- 
ceived considerable notoriety lately be- 
cause of areport that Miss Stone was con- 
cealed there, and a thorough search was 
made by the soldiers. ‘This profanation 
of the holy place excited great indigna- 
tion among the orthodox Greeks, who 
blamed the American missionaries and 
threatened reprisals. 

Its picturesque walls have often shel- 
tered brigands, and in olden times its 
secluded situation made it a convenient 
rendezvous for enterprising gentlemen 
when tempted by favorable opportuni- 
ties or oppressed by necessity. In re- 
turn for their hospitality the monks 
were liberally supplied with game from 
the mountains, and are supposed to have 
received liberal contributions from the 
booty of their guests. 

Around the picturesque city of Phil- 
ippopolis are many ancient ruins, which 


THe Narionat GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


should attract the interest of arche- 


-ologists, but have thus far received very 


little attention. Perhaps that is because 
they are sofar away. In Philippopolis 
there is quite a colony of Protestants, 
which last year erected the largest and 
finest Protestant church in the Balkan 
States. In Sofia there is another pros- 
perous Protestant church. The princi- 
pal school is at Samakov, where Miss 
Stone had been attending a teachers’ 
convention before her capture. 

The most influential woman in Bul- 
garia is Mrs Ivan Kassuroff, a former 
pupil of Miss Stone, who is notable as 
the first woman of social position in that 
country to enter mercantile business. 
Her character and abilities have not 
only carried her through a trying or- 
deal, but she has gained the respect and 
confidence of the entire community and 
has opened the field of commerce for 
women. When her husband, who was 
the proprietor of the principal bookstore 
in Sofia, died, he left her nothing but 
the good will of his business, and she 
was compelled to carry it on or become 
dependent upon others. Although no 
woman had ever undertaken such a task 
in Bulgaria, Madam Kassuroff assumed 
the responsibility. Now every one ad- 
mires her and is proud of her success, 
and every hat is lifted when she passes 
along the street. She is a typical ex- 
ample of what American ideas, intro- 
duced by American missionaries, have 
done for the emancipation and advance- 
ment of women in the East. The gov- 
ernment, as well as the public, has ex- 
pressed its approval, and Madam Kas- 
suroff is now the official printer and 
bookseller. 

Sofia, the capital, is a city of 45,000 
inhabitants, situated at the base of Mt 
Bitosch, a beautiful peak, 7,800 feet 
high. It covers a considerable area, 
and looks as if a building boom had 
been suddenly checked, which is true. 
Under the reign of Prince Alexander 
and Stefan Stambuloff, Bulgaria made 


Vue Great Turx anp His Lost Provinces 53 


The Ancient Greek Monastary of St John of Ryle, Bulgaria 


54 


extraordinary progress, but under the 
present government very few improve- 
ments have been made. The business 
portion of the city will compare well 
with any place of similar size in France, 
Germany, or Austria. ‘The business 
blocks are of modern architecture ; the 
streets are wide and well kept; there 
are many apartment-houses similar to 
those in Vienna; the shops are filled 
with fine assortments of European 
goods—patent sweepers and furniture 


Tue Nationa, GerocraPHic MAGAZINE 


The national costume is one of the most 
picturesque in Europe, and their outer 


-garments are of wool grown and sheared 


upon their own farms, spun and woven 
in their own cabins, cut and made by 
theirownhands. Formerly their cotton 
goods were imported from England and 
Germany, but the thrifty Bulgarians 
have learned the most valuable lessons 
of economy, and a little patch of cotton 
is now found beside nearly every cabin, 
which is planted, picked, ginned, spun, 


Sofia, the Capital of Bulgaria 


from Grand Rapids, agricultural im- 
plements and machinery from our fac- 
tories, and Armour’s canned goods; but 
what little commerce we have with 
the Balkan States is filtered through 
Austria. 

In the market places you see the cos- 
tumes of nearly every oriental race. 
The Bulgarian is distinguished by the 
kalpak, a head-dress of lamb’s wool, and 
the Turk by his fez. The Turkish 
women wear veils, but the Bulgarian 
women follow the European customs. 


woven by the women like wool from 
their flocks. They are fond of bright 
colors, and the garments of both men and 
women are elaborately embroidered. A 
Bulgarian girl arrayed for her wedding 
or for a holiday is as pretty and pictur- 
esque an object as you can find outside 
of China or Japan, and a Bulgarian 
dandy isa delight. The sober-minded 
gentlemen wear long coats of white wool 
with full skirts and frogs, turbans of 
lamb skin, and high boots. 

There is a fine club in Sofia, more im- 


Tue Great Turk anp His Lost Provinces 


posing than can be found in any city of 
46,000 population in the United States, 
and it is the center of social life. Dur- 
ing the reign of Prince Alexander, a 
military barracks, public printing office, 
a technical school, a riding academy, and 
other creditable government buildings 
were erected. Several mosques have 
been converted into prisons, markets, 
warehouses, and arsenals. The largest, 
only a stone’s throw from the palace, is 
now being fitted up for a national mu- 
seum. There are two hotels with com- 
fortable rooms and excellent tables; 
electric street cars run in every direc- 
tion; the streets, public buildings, and 
houses of the rich are lighted with elec- 
tricity, and other features of modern 
civilization are quite as advanced as may 
be found in any other city of Europe. 
In the older quarters of the city are 
seen long rows of ancient wooden houses 
with latticed windows, and by that sign 
one may know the residence of a Turk, 
who thus shields the women of his fam- 
ily from the public gaze; but there are 
now comparatively few Moslems in Bul- 
garia, and they are leaving rapidly. 
The Berlin conference told the people 
of Bulgaria that they might choose their 
own prince, and the National Assembly 
selected Prince Alexander of Hesse, a 
nephew of the Czar of Russia, a grand- 
‘nephew of Kaiser Wilhelm the Great, 
and a brother-in-law of Queen Victoria’s 
daughter Beatrice. He was a great fa- 
vorite with everybody—brave, unselfish, 
patriotic, and ambitious to promote the 
welfare of the people, but too honest and 
candid to cope with the conspirators by 
whom he was surrounded. Russia was 
disappointed because the other powers 
had deprived her of the fruit of her vic- 
tory over the Turks, and determined to 
obtain control of Bulgaria by intrigue. 
Anxious to preserve its independence, 
Alexander refused to comply with the 
Russian demands, encouraged the dem- 
ocratic spirit of the people, and assumed 
the leadership of the anti-Russian party. 


SS) 


The Russians retaliated by one of the 
most scandalous conspiracies since the 
days of the robber barons. The Prince 
of Bulgaria was kidnapped in his own 
palace by his own officers, driven over 
the mountains, and placed upon a Rus- 
sian yacht in the Danube. European 
sentiment compelled his restoration and 
the Czar evaded responsibility, but not 
one of the Russian officials engaged in 
the plot was ever even reprimanded. 

Alexander was enthusiastically wel- 
comed by the people, but, with charac- 
teristic frankness telegraphed the Czar 
that he had received his crown from 
Russia and was ready to surrender it 
whenever demanded. The Czar com- 
pelled Alexander to abdicate, but not 
until after he had given him a pledge 
that the Bulgarians would be permitted 
to manage their own affairs without in- 
terference—a pledge that has been daily 
violated. 

Alexander’s successor and the present 
Prince of Bulgaria is Ferdinand of Saxe- 
Coburg and Gotha, a grandson of Louis 
Philippe of France, and a cousin of 
nearly every crowned head in Europe. 
Ferdinand is the opposite of Alexander 
in character, motives, and ambitions. 
He is selfish, fond of display, of ex- 
travagant habits, and the gratification 
of his own vanity is of greater impor- 
tance to him than the progress and wel- 
fare of his people. For the first two or 
three years he got on without friction, 
but his queen, Marie Louise of Bourbon, 
yearned for the social recognition of the 
court at St Petersburg and was ambi- 
tious for her children. Through her 
influence he yielded to the demands of 
the Czar, and the active ruler of Bul- 
garia has since been the diplomatic 
agent of Russia at Sofia, now Mr Bakh- 
meteff, a diplomatist of great talent and 
long experience, who is well known in 
Washington, having married the daugh- 
ter of the late General Edward F. Beale. 

Stefan Stambuloff was the greatest 
man the Balkan States ever produced, 


56 


and was the Prime Minister of Bulgaria 
under Prince Alexander and Prince 
Ferdinand until the latter adopted a 
pro-Russian policy, when he retired 
and was succeeded by a man of Russian 
sympathies. He became the leader of 
a formidable anti-Russian party, until 
removed from the whirl of Bulgarian 
politics by assassination in July, 1895. 
The assassin was recognized as Michael 
Stavreff, a pro-Russian politician who 
was also accused of the murder in 1892 
of Mr Vulkovich, a diplomatic agent 
of Bulgaria at Constantinople, second 
to Stambuloff in influence among the 
anti-Russian party. Until October last 
Stavreff was allowed to go unpunished, 
and was a familiar figure about the 
cafés of Sofia. He was pointed out to 
me and to every one as Stambuloff’s 
assassin, and appeared to be proud of 
that notoriety. 

In October, 1902, he was arrested, 
tried, convicted, sentenced to death for 
the two murders by order of Mr Lud- 
skanoff, Minister of Interior and leader 
of the Russian sympathizers, who was 
banished by Stambuloff for treason. 
Immediately after the sentence of Stav- 
reff, there appeared upon the streets 
facsimile copies of letters showing that 
Ludskanoff had employed him to com- 
mit the two murders, and similar fac- 
similes of other letters have appeared 
at frequent intervals since. It is the 
popular belief that Ludskanoff, fearing 
Stavreff’s reckless tongue, attempted 
to put him out of the way, and that the 
latter’s friends have disclosed the cor- 
respondence to involve the minister in 
the crime. 

Stavreff has not been executed ; the 
Prime Minister, Mr Karachoff, still per- 
mits Ludskanoff to remain in the cabi- 
net ; the government ignores the situa- 
tion, and the friends of the minister 
claim that the general amnesty granted 
political exiles after Stambuloff’s assas- 
sination was a full pardon for any crime 
in which he might have been involved 
before that date. 


THe Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


Stambuloff lacked polish and educa- 
tion; he was arbitrary and despotic, but 


his entire career is an example of unsel- 


fish integrity and patriotism. He lived 
and died for the independence of Bul- 
garia, and had the full confidence of 
Prince Alexander. Had thosetwo men 
been permitted to carry out their plans, 
the country would have had peace, prog- 
ress, and prosperity; but conspiracy tri- 
umphed, patriotism was repressed, and 
but for the strong hand of Russia its 
condition might have been worse than it 


is. ‘The treasury is empty, the national 


credit is exhausted, and the hysterical 
emotions of sympathy that are stirred 
by the sufferings of their kinsmen across 
the border keep the people in continu- 
ous turmoil. 


MACEDONIA 


The Bulgarian atrocities have been 
repeated in Macedonia for over twenty- 
five years, and have grown worse and 
worse, until the country has been almost 
depopulated. - Human life and property 
are held as worthless by the Turkish off- 
cials. No woman has been safe from 
their lust; no man has been allowed to 
save money or produce more than 
enough to supply his own wants. The 
Christian population have no standing 
in the courts, no remedy for injustice 
and extortion, and the world would be 
shocked if the truth were known; yet 
year after year the jealousy of the pow- 
ers of Europe permit these conditions 
to continue. 

An occasional insurrection or lawless 
incident in which a foreigner has been 
the victim, like the kidnapping of Miss 
Stone, has attracted public attention, 
and remonstrances are frequently filed 
at the Sublime Porte by the European 
ambassadors, in which the Sultan is 
warned that anarchy and barbarity will 
not be tolerated longer and admonished 
to repent and reform. It must amuse 
His Majesty to read the signature of the 
German ambassador at the bottom of 
these notes, and we can imagine his 


Tue Great Turk ann His Lost Provinces 


large, sad eyes grow merry at the farces 
so frequently enacted at the Vildiz 
Kiosk when the representatives of the 
powers appear in their radiant uniforms 
to remonstrate against his inhumanity 
to his Christian subjects. He realizes 
and he knows that they realize that the 
slightest interference by force on the 


57 


ble than any other nation, because its 
government sustains and protects the 
Sultan in his atrocious barbarisms not 
only in Macedonia but in all parts of 
the near East. 

Von Moltke prophesied that a univer- 
sal war would be fought under the walls 
of Constantinople, and the Bulgarians 


House of the Sobranye (Bulgarian National Assembly), Sofia 


part of any of their sovereigns will pro- 
voke an even more emphatic remon- 
strance elsewhere for fear some commer- 
cial or political advantage may be 
gained; and when his situation becomes 
serious he grants another profitable con- 
cession to some German syndicate as an 
additional policy of insurance against 
intervention. Germany is more culpa- 


are trying to provoke it. What is 
known as the Macedonian Committee is 
an organization to which every Bulga- 
rian belongs. Its headquarters are in 
one of the most conspicuous buildings 
upon one of the most prominent streets 
of Sofia. Its meetings are public. It 
issues a weekly newspaper in which its 
purposes are announced and its plans 


Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria 


discussed. It is sustained and encour- 
aged by the Bulgarian government and 
assisted by liberal contributions from 
Russia. The plot to kidnap Miss Stone 
was hatched in the Macedonian Com- 
mittee, and her ransom, paid by the 
American people, was undoubtedly ex- 
pended for arms and ammunition. ‘The 
object was, first, to punish the Ameri- 
can missionaries who had refused to 
contribute to the Macedonian cause ; 
second, to attract the attention of the 
Christian world to the anarchy and bar- 
barism that exist in Macedonia ; and, 
third, to involve the United States gov- 
ernment in hostilities with Turkey. 
How long the powers of Europe will 
permit the Sultan to defy them is a 
question often asked, both in private 
and public, and never answered. It is 
probable that trouble will ultimately 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


arise through collision between the Bul- 
garian patriots and the Turkish troops 
in Macedonia. ‘They occur frequently. 
Searcely a month passes without a battle 
on the border. If Bulgaria makes a 
complaint, Turkey replies that the goy- 
ernment is trying to suppress brigand- 
age. Some time, however, the Bulga- 
rian people will not be satisfied with 
that answer. They will insist that 
their government demand reparation of 
Turkey and make a hostile demonstra- 
tion that will attract the attention of 
Europe. This would have occurred 
long ago but for the inability of Bulga- 
ria to raise funds to equip and pay an 
army, the indifference of Prince Ferdi- 
nand, and the lack of leadership. 

In the meantime the Sultan is buying 
guus in anticipation of trouble. We 
often hear that the Sultan is insane, 
that he is suffering from a neurotic dis- 
ease caused by insomnia, anxiety, and 
fear; yet no diplomatist of ancient or 
modern times has been more skillful or 
successful in playing upon the rivalries 
of his enemies. 


SERVIA 


The small but restless State of Servia 
obtained its independence from Turkey 
early in the nineteenth century, under 
the leadership of a nameless peasant. 
Because of his swarthy complexion and 
raven hair they called him Kara George, 
which means ‘‘ Black George,’’ and 
Karageorgeovitch is the name of his 
descendants. Milosh, a companion of 
Kara George in the fight for liberty, 
was a farm servant of a widow named 
Obren, whose name he adopted when 
he needed one, and Obrenovitch is the 
family name of the present king. The 
feud between the two families began 
in 1817, when a Turkish pasha hired 
Milosh to assassinate his friend as he 
slept, and the history of Servia has 
since been a continuous duel between 
their descendants, encouraged by Tur- 
key and Russia, which have been con- 


THe Great Turk anp His Lost PRoviINcEs 


tending for the control of the Balkan 
Peninsula. 4 

The present king, a repulsive degen- 
erate, and his queen, Draga, are boy- 
cotted by all the courts of Europe 
because of their immorality. The Ka- 
rageorgeovitch family are in exile, Peter, 
the head of the house, being engaged 
in scientific pursuits in Switzerland. 
King Alexander looks as if he had es- 
caped from an asylum for the depraved, 
but has a vigorous constitution, and 
on occasions has shown great nerve and 


King Alexander of Servia 


power of command. Unfortunately he 
has inherited all the vices of his father, 
the late King Milan, who was the worst 
tuler Europe has seen for a generation. 
While getting his education in Paris 
he acquired habits which unfitted him 
for the responsibility of governing a 
primitive and restless people like the 
Servians. He squandered the public 
money and lost his private fortune at 
ecards, and his wife, Natalie Keskho, 
daughter of a colonel in the Russian 


59 


army, was compelled to leave him and 
finally obtained a divorce. She now 
resides at Biarritz, very much respected 
and beloved, although she made herself 
unhappy and excited the hostility of 
the Servian politicians by her uncon- 
cealed Russian sympathies. ‘The scan- 
dals of the Servian court furnished 
gossip for all Europe, until finally, en- 
ervated by dissipation and despised by 
all his subjects, Milan abdicated in 
favor of his young son, Alexander, and 
went to Vienna to die. 

Alexander was a precocious prince, 
and when only fifteen years old fell 
under the fascination of Madam Draga 
Maschin, who had been a lady in wait- 
ing to his mother and is about ten years 
older than he. She is an ambitious, 
brilliant woman, gifted with consider- 
able beauty and a charming manner. 
Madam Draga had more influence with 
the King than his parents, the ministry, 
and the court, and when he was seven- 
teen persuaded him to marry her and as- 
sume the reins of government. From 
that time until now the Servian court 
has been the scene of a series of sensa- 
tions which are likely to continue in- 
definitely. 

The palace, in the center of the 
city, is a pretentious structure, which 
rises next to the public street without 
grounds, and was built by Milan, the 
gambler king, with an eye to entertain- 
ment and display. Within isa series of 
magnificent apartments equal to those in 
the palaces at Berlin and Vienna, de- 
signed by a French architect, and fur- 
nished with an extravagance that threw 
the country almost into bankruptcy. 
The great drawing-room, in which the 
king received the officials, the diplo- 
matic corps, and the public every Sun- 
day morning, is one of the finest in the 
world. 

You reach Servia by railroad through 
Hungary across a country that looks 
very much like Kansas and Nebraska. 
Servia is called a poor man’s paradise, 


60 


because the soil, climate, and other con- 
ditions are favorable to people of small 
means. Highty-seven per cent of the 
2,400,000 inhabitants are engaged in 
farming, and there is no country in 
which the land is so equally distributed, 
for there is one farm to every eight in- 
habitants. Fruit culture is the largest 
source of profit. The prunes of Servia 
are the most popular and bring the high- 
est price in foreign markets. All other 
kinds of fruit are grown and preserved, 
and grains, vegetables, and dairy prod- 
ucts are shipped in every direction. 
Flocks and herds are large and multiply 
rapidly, and the people are always pros- 
perous except when a war or a revolu- 
tion is on. 

Belgrade, the capital, lies upon a 
promontory where the river Save joins 
the Danube. ‘The modern part of the 
town is quite attractive; the ancient 
part, built centuries ago, during the 
Turkish dominition, is picturesque. 
The modern streets are wide and lined 
with fine buildings after the Austrian 
style of architecture. Some of the 
school buildings are excellent samples 
of modern constructien and show an 
educational enterprise that is creditable 
to the country. There is a compulsory 
education law, free schools, and free 
books; a number of academies, schools 
of commerce, agriculture and fruit cul- 
ture, and a university with four hun- 
dred students. The government sup- 
ports a museum, an art gallery, and a 
theater for the encouragement of native 
dramatists and opera writers. At the 
extreme point of the promontory, rising 
abruptly from the river to a height of 
400 feet, is a citadel erected by the Ro- 
mans before the time of Christ. ‘The 
castle is in an excellent state of preser- 
vation, is used for a prison, a barracks, 
and a military school, and is the head- 
quarters of the army. There are no pau- 
pers in Servia, and therefore no alms- 
houses, but there is a free hospital for 
both military and civilian patients, 


THe NartionaL GeocraPpHic MaGAZzine 


which is well kept up. The Bourse is 
a fine building, also erected by a French 


-architect, and reminds you of the mod- 


ern structures of Marseilles and Havre. 
The fever of speculation is as great in 
Servia as anywhere, and exciting scenes 
are happening frequently on the Bourse, 
particularly when political disturbances 
occur. 

The ancient part of the city has re- 
mained unchanged for centuries. The 
walls of the citadel were built by the 
Romans, and stand as they left them, 
after having sustained the attacks of 
hundreds of armies and some of the 
most famous sieges in history. 

The political crisis in Servia just now 
is caused by the lack of a baby. In the 
absence of a natural heir the constitu- 
tion of the country requires the King to 
designate his successor, and the neigh- 
boring powers are endeavoring to assist. 
in the selection. The daughter of the 
Servian cattle dealer reached the throne 
by a series of sacrifices and intrigues. 
more sensational than often occur out- 
side of fiction; yet she is not happy, 
and never will be until she is socially 
recognized by the other royal houses of 
Europe, to whom this clever adven- 
turess is offering the throne of Servia 
as the price of such recognition. Ne- 
gotiations have been going on fora year 
or more with Russia. Queen Draga. 
promises that the King will proclaim 
Prince Mirko, of Montenegro, heir ap- 
parent, provided she and her husband 
are invited to spend a few days in Rus- 
sia as the guests of the Czar; but the 
Czarina, who is a pure woman, has ab- 
solutely refused to receive her. 

Prince Mirko is a brother-in-law of 
the King of Italy, and two of his sisters 
have married Russian archdukes. He 
was educated at St Petersburg, is a 
great favorite of the imperial family, 
and Queen Draga could not have se- 
lected a candidate more agreeable to: 
them or satisfactory to the other powers. 
Furthermore, another of his sisters mar-- 


Work or THE U. S. HyprocrapPHic OFFICE 


tied Prince Peter, the present head of 
the Karageorgeovitch family, which ap- 
proves of his selection; and thus, if he 
were to reach the Servian throne, the 
feud that has wrecked that country 
might be permanently healed. The suc- 
cess of this arrangement, involving the 
peace of Servia, the supremacy of Rus- 
sia in its government, and perhaps the 


61 


political control of the Balkan Penin- 
sula, is checked by the refusal of a good 
woman to receive a bad woman as her 
guest. Count Lamsdorff, the Russian 
Minister of Foreign Affairs, has recently 
visited Sofia and Belgrade, and the 
newspaper dispatches from those coun- 
tries predict events of importance ta 
occur soon. 


iat WORK OF VHE U.S. HYDROGRAPHIC 
OFFICE* 


By ComMANDER Wi H. H. SouruHertanp, U. S. N., 
HyDROGRAPHER 


APPEAR before you this evening 
to describe the work of the U. S. 
Hydrographic Office, and in so 
doing I shall make an earnest effort to 
give you as definite an idea as possible 
of the character, mode of operation, and 
the valuable practical results of this 
the most unique and at the same time 
the least known of all the technical 
offices supported by our government— 
unique in that it is the only office on 
this continent which publishes charts, 
sailing directions, and other necessary 
aids to navigation relating to foreign 
countries, and little known in that its 
work is principally for a particular 
class—the seafaring class. 


ORGANIZATION AND HISTORY OF THE 
OFFICE 


Before proceeding with this descrip- 
tion, a short résumé of the phases 
through which the office has passed 
from its inception to the present time 
may prove of interest. 

Prior to 1830, whenever a naval ves- 
sel was in need of charts or nautical in- 
struments it was the custom for the 
commanding officer to forward to the 


Board of Navy Commissioners a requisi- 
tion for such of these articles as he 
deemed necessary. This requisition, 
when approved by the board, was sent 
to the navy agent at the port where the 
vessel was fitting out, who filled it as far 
as possible by purchase from foreign 
governments or from the few private 
dealersinthis country. ‘These purchases 
were afterwards supplemented during 
the vessel’s cruise by such additions as 
were from time to time deemed advisa- 
ble by the commanding officer; and at 
the end of the cruise, when the vessel 
was put out of commission, her charts 
and instruments were turned in at a 
navy yard, where they were stowed 
away and no further attention was paid 
to them until they might be needed 
again. 

The result, of course, was that very. 
often needed charts could not be pur- 
chased and delivered before the date of 
sailing, or instruments were placed on 
board without being adjusted or stand- 
ardized, and it was very seldom that 
charts so purchased had been corrected 
up to date. In fact, no official means 
then existed by which mariners could 


* An address before the National Geographic Society, January 16, 1903. 


62 


be informed of necessary corrections to 
their outfits of charts. 

To obviate as far as possible the dan- 
gers to navigation resulting from such 
a lack of system and care, the Secretary 
of the Navy in 1830, upon a recommen- 
dation from the Board of Navy Com- 
missioners, directed the establishment 
of a depot of charts and instruments, 
under the charge of the late Commodore 
Goldsborough, then a lieutenant. This 
was the inception of the Hydrographic 
Office, the province of which for the 
first five years of its existence was sim- 
ply to purchase, correct, and keep on 
hand charts and instruments for our 
naval vessels only. 

It was not until 1835 that any effort 
was made to construct our own charts. 
In that year a lithographic press was 
purchased, and in the following year 
the first charts actually executed by the 
depot appeared for issue to the service 
and merchant marine. 

In 1842, the bureau system of the 
Navy Department was established by 
act of Congress, the depot of charts and 
instruments being attached to the Bu- 
reau of Ordnance and Hydrography, to 
constitute the hydrographic branch of 
that bureau. 

Lieutenant Maury had in the mean- 
time been detailed to duty in this 
depot of charts and instruments, and 
in 1844, upon the completion of the 
Naval Observatory building (which was 
afterward frequently officially desig- 
nated as the Naval Observatory and 
Hydrographic Office), the depot of 
‘charts and instruments was moved into 
that building, Lieutenant Maury be- 
‘coming the Superintendent of the Naval 
Observatory and Hydrographic Office. 

Lieutenant Maury devoted the greater 
part of his energies to hydrographic 
subjects, and for the seventeen years 
during which he had charge of this 
office did more in the interest of the 
merchant marine than was accomplished 
by similar branches of all foreign gov- 


Tue NationaL GroGRaPHic MAGAZINE 


ernmentscombined. He began the col- 
lection of information from the logs of 
men-of-war and merchant vessels for 
the purpose of constructing nautical 
charts to show the prevailing winds and 
currents, their limits and characteris- 
tics, and, in general, the physical fea- 
tures of the ocean, and all facts of in- 
terest or value to the maritime commu- 
nity. This was continued during the 
seventeen years he remained in charge, 
and resulted in the issue of wind and 
current charts, track charts, trade-wind 
charts, whale feeding ground charts, 
thermal charts, storm and rain charts, 
and eight large volumes of sailing di- 
rections, all of which were concerned 
with the safe navigation of the known 
waters of the globe. In addition, there 
were issued nearly fifty charts of dif- 
ferent sections of the world, which were 
printed from engraved copper plates. 

On the breaking out of the civil war 
Maury cast his fortunes with the South, 
and his practical labors for the Navy 
and merchant marine ceased. He was 
succeeded by one of the most accom- 
plished officers in the service, the then 
Commander Gillis, and the Hydro- 
graphic Office during the four years of 
the civil war gained an excellent repu- 
tation in and out of the service through 
its ability to keep our war vessels sup- 
plied with the latest charts, nautical 
publications, and other necessary aids 
to safe navigation. 

The work of the office was so strictly 
navigational in character that shortly 
after the civil war began it was trans- 
ferred to the Bureau of Navigation, 
under which bureau it remained until 
1898, when it was transferred to the 
Bureau of Equipment, under the direc- 
tion of which it now remains. 

In 1866, the year after the ending of 
the civil war, the connection between 
the Naval Observatory and the depot of 
charts and instruments was severed by 
law. An act of Congress passed in that 
year established ‘‘A Hydrographic Of- 


Work of THE U. S. HyprocrapHic OFFICE 


fice for the improvement of the means 
for navigating safely the vessels of the 
Navy and mercantile marine, by pro- 
viding, under authority of the Secretary 
of the Navy, accurate and cheap nauti- 
cal charts, sailing directions, navigators, 
and manuals of instructions for the use 
of all vessels of the United States, and 
for the benefit and use of navigators 
generally.’’ The act further provided 
that the Secretary of the Navy be au- 
thorized ‘‘to cause to be prepared,’’ in 
the Hydrographic Office thus created, 
such ‘‘maps, charts, and sailing direc- 
tions, and nautical books relating to and 
required in navigation, and to publish 
and furnish them to navigators at the 
cost of printing and paper, and to pur- 
chase the plates and copyrights of such 
existing charts, maps, sailing directions, 
etc., as he may consider necessary.’ 

The spirit and intent of this act of 
Congress have been carried out from 
that time to this with unceasing energy 
and with a degree of zeal, ability, and 
intelligence which would reflect credit 
upon any branch of our government, 
and this has been done at the minimum 
of cost and under difficulties which at 
times seemed almost insurmountable. 
From the small depot of 1830, with a 
working force of two officers and one 
nautical expert, it has expanded to an 
establishment with a working force of 
nearly ninety technical and skilled em- 
ployees, supplemented by sixteen fully 
equipped branch offices at the most im- 
portant points on our Atlantic, Pacific, 
and Gulf seaboards and on the shores 
of our Great Lakes. 


SURVEYS BY OUR MEN-OF-WAR 


No vessel starting on a voyage is 
properly equipped unless her naviga- 
tional outfit includes accurate charts, 
sailing directions, light lists, and other 
necessary aids to navigation for all places 
to be visited. The Hydrographic Office 
is charged with producing this naviga- 
tional outfit of necessary charts, sailing 


63 


directions, etc., for all parts of the world 
not under the jurisdiction of the United 
States, and in performing this duty there 
is no quarter of the habitable globe the 
waters of some portion of which have 
not been surveyed by vessels of our own 
Navy. 

In general, the charts referred to are 
constructed from surveys made by the 
officers and crews of men-of-war. As 
there can be no question as to the ne- 
cessity for an accurate knowledge of the 
waters of the globe, our naval vessels 
are supplied with an outfit for hydro- 
graphic surveying. With their large 
crews, numerous boats, and with officers 
trained to the actual requirements of 
all practical navigational aids, it is clear 
that this service is one for which the 
Navy is particularly well adapted in 
times of peace—a service which, in 
general, can be performed without in- 
terfering with other naval requirements, 
and with results which inure to the 
benefit of all mankind. And it is a 
pleasure to state that the service is one 
which is not considered distasteful in 
the Navy. Frequently, due to the 
exigencies of diplomatic relations and for 
other reasons, our vessels are stationed 
in foreign waters for long intervals of 
time, during which the officers and 
crews generally welcome surveying work 
as a decided break in the monotony of 
their confinement to the limits of the 
ship. During the last fiscal year not 
less than 24 naval vessels engaged in 
practical surveying operations in many 
parts of the world, the results of which 
will be of incalculable benefit to our 
maritime and commercial interests. At 
the present time a number of our men- 
of-war are similarly engaged in very 
important localities. 

In addition to the resulting benefit to 
our maritime interests, the naval sery- 
ice is also materially benefited. The 
work tends to bring out the officer’s 
powers of observation of things nautical 
and to give him a familiarity with coast 


64 


work which becomes invaluable in time 
of war. 

This was well exemplified during our 
civil war, when the most successful 
blockade-runners were commanded by 
men, generally ex-naval officers, who 
had been engaged in the Coast Survey 
in the vicinity of their blockading op- 
erations. If this was then true of our 
own coast, how much more so will it be 
of foreign coasts in the event of any 
future war! This fact was also evi- 
denced during the late Spanish-Ameri- 
canwar. Nearly all of the many officers 
who distinguished themselves during 
that period, particularly those who oc- 
cupied ranking positions, had seen good 
surveying service either in the Navy or 
in the Coast Survey. This I “have 
taken the liberty of demonstrating by 
the exhibition of a few charts—one the 
result of the work of Admiral Dewey, 
one that of Admiral Charles E. Clark, 
and one that of the late Admiral John 
W. Philip. 

Lack of space only prevents exhib- 
iting equally good work by many 
other of our prominent officers, but I 
cannot properly let the opportunity 
pass without calling attention to some 
of our many naval officers whose work 
in hydrographic surveying will never 
be forgotten: Commodore Wilkes on 
the Grand Banks and in the Pacific and 
Antarctic, Commodore Perry in the 
waters of Japan, Commodore Rodgers 
and Commanders Berry and Stockton 
in the North Pacific and in Bering Sea, 
Lieutenant Lynch in the Dead Sea, 
Admirals Belknap, Erben, Barker, and 
Tanner in the Pacific and elsewhere, 
and Brooke and S. P. Lee in the Atlan- 
tic. Captain Mahan, our most noted 
authority on naval subjects, was also 
an expert hydrographic surveyor. Ad- 
miral Porter and many of our most dis- 
tinguished naval officers of the civil war 
had performed good work in the Coast 
Survey, and Pillsbury’s work in the 
Gulf Stream is well known. 


Tae Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


CHART CONSTRUCTION 


_I shall now briefly sketch the course 
of chart construction. In general, a 
preliminary sheet of the work done, 
prepared with accuracy and with a suf- 
ficient degree of delicate draftmanship 
to clearly demonstrate any inaccuracies 
as the work progresses, together with 
the records of astronomical observations, 
triangulation, topography, tides, cur- 
rents, etc., is forwarded from the sur- 
veying vessel to the Hydrographic Office, 
where, in the Division of Chart Con- 
struction, now presided over by one of 
the most thoroughly equipped hydro- 
graphic engineers in this or any country, 
the work is carefully revised in every 
detail and a smooth sheet prepared, from 
which comes the working chart, either 
from an engraved copper plate or by a 
lithographic process. As soon as the 
finished chart is printed, all vessels of 
the Navy serving in the locality which 
it indicates are supplied therewith. The 
merchant vessels of all nations can ob- 
tain it by purchase from the Hydro- 
graphic Office or from any of its numer- 
ous agents. 

As soon as received in the Hydro- 
graphic Office, the work is made a mat- 
ter of record and the history of the chart 
commences, not to end until the chart 
becomes obsolete or is canceled by an- 
other. Every correction, alteration, or 
addition, with the names of all con- 
nected therewith, becomes a matter 
of record which is carefully guarded. 
While sometimes, for good and sufh- 
cient reasons, the legend on the chart 
does not show the authority, that infor- 
mation is contained in its record. 


GENERAL CHARTS, COAST CHARTS, 
AND HARBOR CHARTS 


And now let us see what these charts. 
are, what they show, and of what use 
they are to the mariner. Generally 
speaking, navigational charts are of 
three classes—general charts, coast 
charts, and harbor charts—the coast 


Work or THE U. S. HyprocrapHic OFFIcE 


charts occasionally being divided into 
special and general. 

General charts, as the name implies, 
cover a large territory, and are princi- 
pally for the use of navigators in the 
open sea, as in making long voyages. 
This class of chart is necessarily upon 
a small scale, and represents not only 
the character of the ocean bed as thus 
far delineated by deep-sea soundings 
obtained by vessels of the principal 
maritime nations, but also the shore 
lines with the most prominent topo- 
graphical features, the principal sea- 
ports, the lighthouses which are of use 
in off-shore navigation, all dangers in 
the nature of shoals, reefs, and rocks, 
and the lines of equal magnetic declina- 
tion or variation; compass stars, show- 
ing both true and magnetic directions in 
degrees and quarter points, are placed 
where it is thought they will be of the 
greatest use. On this chart the navi- 
gator plots his geographical positions as 
often as they are determined, and thus 
is able to keep as nearly as possible a 
direct course to his port of destination. 
This chart is kept in use until the vessel 
gets within the limits of the coast chart, 
when it is put away and replaced by the 
latter. 

Coast charts, both general and special, 
delineate the coasts of all countries, and 
for each coast are consecutive and take 
in such sections of the coast as will per- 
mit of the use of a comparatively large 
scale. The coast line is accurately de- 
lineated, as are also the principal topo- 
graphical features which can be used in 
navigation; all the lighthouses, with 
their peculiar characteristics; the life- 
saving stations, Weather Bureau sta- 
tions, and all the features which in any 
way can enable an observer by bearings, 
or otherwise, to determine his position. 
The soundings are frequent and, in gen- 
eral, are run out to the 1oo-fathom 
curve. With the aid of this coast chart, 
the navigator pilots his ship along shore 
until within the limits of the chart of 


65 


the harbor to which he is bound, when 
that replaces it. 

The harbor chart is on a larger scale 
than the others and in greater detail. 
Every object on shore that can be used 
in piloting the ship in or out of the har- 
bor is delineated in its correct position. 
Where possible, ranges to guide vessels 
in and out are determined and plotted 
upon the chart; lighthouses, range 
lights, buoys, beacons, and all day- 
marks are plotted; the positions of land- 
ing places, custom-houses, and public 
buildings of which the navigator may 
have occasion to know are plotted, 
where possible; curves of certain equal 
depths of water, quarantine stations and 
quarantine grounds, men-of-war and 
merchant ships’ anchorages are also 
clearly indicated; the magnetic declina- 
tion or variation is noted on one or more 
compass roses, and in addition the chart 
contains all necessary data as to the date 
of publication, the date of the latest cor- 
rection, the character of the soundings, 
heights, signs, and abbreviations, and 
all necessary tidal information. On 
these charts, as on coast charts, the 
shore lines are made especially conspicu- 
ous, and the topographical features rep- 
resented are such as will be of actual 
value as aids to navigation. 


USE OF SURVEYS BY OTHER NATIONS 


I have only referred to original sur- 
veys by our own vessels; but it must 
not be understood that the chart con- 
struction work of the Hydrographic 
Office ends with these. We all realize 
that in time of war it would be a diffi- 
cult matter (perhaps an impossible one) 
to get correct navigational charts of 
foreign places against which our Navy 
might have to operate, and during peace 
periods it takes time to obtain the latest 
editions of foreign charts. All the great 
maritime nations recognize the fact that 
it is a matter of national moment for 
them to be possessed of all available 
charts of every part of the world, and 


66 


for this reason they make it a practice 
to use the published surveys of other 
Powers as data for the construction of 
charts of their own. Weare compelled 
to do likewise, and little by little are 
utilizing the surveys of those foreign 
nations, the work of which is known to 
be reliable. This is a matter of dis- 
crimination, but experience has shown 
the necessity for discrimination. Many 
charts of the Philippines, of Cuba, and 
of islands of the West Indies have been 
found to be inaccurate. 

This use of foreign work is not only 
in the direction of a proper preparation 
for possible times of national peril, but 
in the end is a matter of economy. 
Were this practice not carried on, it 
would be necessary to purchase our 
charts from foreign nations—a source of 
supply which would be closed to us in 
time of war—and, when purchased, the 
corrections made necessary by newly 
discovered dangers and by changes in 
buoyage, ranges, lighthouses, etc., 
would have to be plotted by hand, which 
is more expensive than making the nec- 
essary changes on the plate from which 
the chart is produced. 


AREA COVERED BY OUR CHARTS 


At the present time the Hydrographic 
Office has in its possession nearly 1,200 
engraved chart plates and about 50 
photographic chart plates. These 1,250 
plates have all been constructed from 
the results of original naval surveys; 
from geographical and cartographical 
data reported by the commanding officers 
of vessels in the naval service ; from 
information collected by the branch 
hydrographic offices from incoming 
mariners of all nationalities, and also 
from the geographical information that 
comes into the custody of the Navy 
Department through the prosecution of 
surveys by foreign governments. 

These charts represent about one- 
third of what are actually necessary for 
a complete set of navigational charts of 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


the world for the use of the naval and 
shipping interests of the United States. 

Besides the projecting, drawing, en- 
graving, photographing, electrotyping, 
and printing, which constitute the cen- 
tral work of chart construction and chart 
correction, the functions of the Hydro- 
graphic Office embrace all that is kin- 
dred and contributory to the construc- 
tion of charts, and hence include the 
mathematical computations for the pro- 
jection, the adjustment of triangula- 
tions, the investigations of the tides, the 
discussion of observations of the mag- 
netic elements of the earth in their bear- 
ing upon charts and navigation, the com- 
putation of navigational tables, and the — 
designing of instruments and machines 
for securing maximum of economy. 

Of the 1,250 or more charts that are 
now available for permanent issue, over 
300 have been derived from original sur- 
veys by the U.S. Navy. These, added 
to the 450 or more charts that have been 
constructed from surveys by the Coast 
and Geodetic Survey, make a grand 
total of 750 or more navigational charts 
constructed from original United States 
surveys, a result which places our people 
ahead of most of the older countries and 
in the front rank of the most active na- 
tions in marine hydrographic work. 

It must not be understood, however, 
that if we were to become possessed of 
engraved plates representing the charts 
now issued by all other nations we 
would be able to produce navigational 
charts covering the world’s entire water 
area. Very much remains to be done 
before the hydrographic features of the 
world can be so charted as to warrant 
the statement that dangers to navigation 
due to lack of knowledge of geographic 
positions and correct soundings have 
been reduced to a minimum. 

There are numerous places in the West 
Indies which we know to be inaccu- 
rately charted, and this same statement 
applies to locations in nearly all parts of 
the world. In the North Pacific Ocean 


Work oF THE U. S. HyprocGrapPHic OFFICE 


alone there are thousands of reported 
dangers. Many of these are probably 
either inaccurately located or do not 
exist, but all the same they are a hin- 
drance to navigation through the anx- 
iety and loss of time which the fear of 
their possible existence causes to ship- 
masters. Fortunately, little by little the 
national vessels of the Great Powers are 
either accurately locating or disproving 
the existence of many of these. I am 
glad to say that our own naval vessels 
have done their share in this good work. 


DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS 


Our knowledge of the depths of the 
sea is gradually increasing through the 
operations of deep-sea sounding expedi- 
tions undertaken by many nations. In 
this field of operations we hold a com- 
manding position. From a scientific 
point of view, a knowledge of the phys- 
ical characteristics of the ocean bed is 
most desirable, and no less so froma 
practical standpoint. No telegraph 
company would think of laying a sub- 
marine cable today without first select- 
ing a desirable route as determined by 
deep-sea soundings. The soundings of 
the U. S. S. Vero in the Pacific two 
years ago determined the route since 
selected for the transpacific cable. 

Deep-sea soundings are also of espe- 
cial value to the mariner, inasmuch as 
from their results the existence of sub- 
marine dangers is frequently indicated. 
In the Atlantic the greatest accurately 
known depth in the fifties was obtained 
by the then Lieut. S. P. Lee, in the 
U.S. brig Dolphin, 3,825 fathoms (4% 
miles). Only a year ago the now great- 
est known depth in the Atlantic, 4,662 
fathoms (5% miles), was found by the 
present U.S. S. Dolphin, the first ves- 
sel of the new Navy. The greatest 
known depth in the world is in the 
Pacific, and is 5,269 fathoms (31,614 
feet), 66 feet short of 6 statute miles. 
This depth was obtained by the U.S. S. 
Vero in 1900, and is greater than any 


67 


elevation on our continent, or, as far as 
we know, in the world. 


SAILING DIRECTIONS 


The Sailing Directions, to which I 
have previously referred, can properly 
be designated as nautical guide books— 
in other words, nautical Baedeckers. 
The coasts of the world are divided up 
into numerous sections, for each one of 
which a book of sailing directions is 
prepared. ‘Thus we have Sailing Di- 
rections of the East Coast of South 
America, etc. These seamen’s guide 
books, when complete and used in con- 
nection with the corresponding naviga- 
tional charts, are supposed to give the 
mariner all the information that he may 
require for safely navigating the part of 
the world considered, and for entering 
and leaving each harbor or anchorage 
therein. When corrected to date, they 
give him in as much detail as possible, a 
knowledge of the prevailing winds and 
weather for each season; of the tides, 
currents, buoys, lights, and other day 
and night marks, and of proper anchor- 
ages. In addition, where possible,ranges 
to be used in entering and leaving port, 
both by day and night, are described ; 
prominent landmarks and other topo- 
graphical features are noted in detail, 
and everything in the way of an aid to 
navigation is entered therein. They 
even go so far as to give him infor- 
mation in regard to port dues, local 
regulations of foreign governments, 
diplomatic customs of the local and 
state authorities, the facilities for ob- 
taining provisions, water, and other sup- 
plies, and also as to obtaining necessary 
repairs. 

There is no guide book known which 
contains so much of practical impor- 
tance. Inall nations these books arewrit- 
ten by naval officers or by others who 
have followed the sea for a profession— 
men who have had sufficiently matured 
practical experience to enable them to 
exercise proper judgment in weighing 


68 | 


the many varied sources of information, 
to reconcile conflicting statements, to set 
forth only the facts upon which the mar- 
iner can rely with confidence, and to 
exercise a care in their preparation com- 
mensurate with the interests of life and 
property at stake. 


AIDS TO NAVIGATION 


The aids to navigation required by 
mariners are numerous, but I shall only 
speak of those which are prepared and 
issued by the Hydrographic Office. 
With due regard to sequence, the No- 
tices to Mariners issued weekly by the 
Hydrographic Office, which particularly 
affect the charts and sailing directions, 
should be considered first. ‘These no- 
tices consist of a collection of statements 
pertaining to safe navigation, made up 
in pamphlet form, which are issued 
weekly by the Hydrographic Office. 
The statements are notices themselves 
pertaining to every matter which is of 
importance to the seaman and navi- 
gator. When a new rock, shoal, or 
other danger is discovered and reported 
to the Hydrographic Office, the infor- 
mation is immediately published, the 
source and its nature being clearly set 
forth. The same is true of the instal- 
lation of new lights, changes in lights, 
alterations or changes in buoyage and 
other day marks in any part of the 
world, wrecks, and all subjects a knowl- 
edge of which would tend to lessen the 
dangers of navigation. These notices 
are issued in a convenient form for cut- 
ting out. ‘They are distributed from 
the Hydrographic Office and from its 
numerous branch offices to all vessels 
of the Navy and to not less than 3,000 
merchant vessels, officers of which at 
the present time are collecting informa- 
tion for the Hydrographic Office. When 
received, the immediate duty of the 
navigator or master is to enter the cor- 
rections by hand on the charts affected 
(these charts being designated in the 
notices), and, in addition, to cut out 


Tue Nationa, GrocGRAPHIC MaGaZINne 


each notice and place it in its proper 
place in the Sailing Directions. You 
will be surprised to learn that notices 
affecting navigation issued by the Hy- 
drographic Office now amount to about 
fifty a week, or over 2,500a year. This 
does not seem so strange, however, when 
we take into consideration the amount 
of cooperation which the Hydrographic 
Office receives in this most important 
aid to mariners. Cordial cooperation 
is afforded by the United States Engi- 
neers, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic 
Survey, the U. S. Lighthouse Service, 
the U. S. Weather Bureau, the U.S. 
Life-saving Service, Fish Commission, 
United States Consuls, hydrographic 
offices of foreign governments, foreign 
astronomical and meteorological observ- 
atories, our own naval vessels, and 
something like 3,000 ships of various 
nations, in which are included men-of- 
war of some of those nations as well. 
Reports to this office come in as many 
as fourteen different languages. 

In this day of high speed on the ocean 
you can readily understand the anxiety 
which the great shipping firms have in 
regard to the safety of their vessels, a 
feeling which actuates them as well as 
their governments to hesitate at no ex- 
pense to obtain such information as is 
contained in these notices. It is not 
uncommon for the Hydrographic Office 
to get cablegrams from abroad giving 
information of serious dangers to navi- 
gation. 

A glance through one of these pam- 
phlets would give an inkling of the 
dangers to which those who go to sea are 
subject. A fair part of these notices 
come through the branch hydrographic 
offices, which are located in sixteen of 
our principal ports. 


BRANCH HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICES 


These branch offices, which are in 
charge of naval officers, with nautical 
experts as assistants, are veritable bu- 
reaus of nautical information. They 


Work orf THE U. S. HyprocraPHic OFFICE 


receive and distribute information, vis- 
iting all incoming vessels for this pur- 
pose, and hold themselves ready to ex- 
amine charts from any vessel, verifying 
the same or pointing out necessary cor- 
rections, examining and correcting in- 
struments, explaining nautical subjects, 
and in any way possible giving aid to 
mariners. In many cases they have 
even adjusted compasses. At the pres- 
ent time the officers at three of them are 
giving night lectures on navigation to 
shipmasters. Many of these have been 
called as witnesses in admiralty cases, 
and in general their influence in im- 
proving the means of safe navigation 
has been most marked. A time-ball 
‘service is carried on at twelve of these 
offices, which is taken advantage of by 
the masters of vessels possessing chro- 
nometers, thus enabling them upon go- 
ing to sea to feel sure of the error and 
rate of this most important navigational 
instrument. 

These offices place within almost im- 
mediate reach of ship captains all the 
information contained in the main office 
and enable the main office to obtain, 
with accuracy and quickness, all im- 
portant information brought by incom- 
ing vessels. They have been of great 
benefit to shipping firms, marine in- 
surance companies, admiralty lawyers, 
and practically to all interests connected 
with maritime affairs. 

In 1880 a commander in the British 
Navy examined the chart outfit of three 
steamers and found as follows : 

On the first, 73 charts out of 93 
needed renewal. 

On the second, 39 charts out of 49 
needed renewal. 

On the third, 95 charts out of 104 
needed renewal. 

At the present time no vessel need 
leave a port in which there is a United 
States branch hydrographic office with 
incorrect charts unless the captain 
wishes to do so. 

Other essential aids to navigation are 


69 


published by the Hydrographic Office, 
but space will not permit of a detailed 
description. Amongst the most im- 
portant can be mentioned the American 
Practical Navigator, a book on naviga- 
tion which no navigator should be with- 
out. This is revised frequently and the 
callforitiscontinuous. Frequent issues 
of the Lists of Lights of the World are 
necessary, the changes in lights all over 
the world being frequent and often very 
radical. Azimuth tables for the use of 
the navigator in determining his com- 
pass error have been issued by this office 
for the last twenty-odd years. ‘The In- 
ternational Code of Signals, which by 
law all mariners are compelled to have, 
is an issue of this office. Publications 
on great-circle sailing ; means of search- 
ing for isolated submarine peaks; on 
the variation of the compass ; sunrise 
and sunset tables; illustrated cloud 
forms; matters pertaining to marine 
meteorologyand to terrestrial magnetism 
are amongst the practically useful issues 
of this office, and all are prepared by its 
attachés. I can safely state that the 
great majority of deep-sea vessels now 
afloat possess some practical aid to navi- 
gation published by the U. S. Hydro- 
graphic Office. 


PILOT CHARTS 


The Pilot. Charts of the North At- 
lantic and North Pacific, the permanent 
issue of which was inaugurated by the 
Hydrographic Office in 1883, are not 
navigational charts, strictly speaking, 
but are simply graphic illustrations of 
the conditions of winds,currents, wrecks, 
derelicts, icebergs, fogs, ete., which 
may reasonably be expected during the 
month for which the chart is issued. 
The primary credit for this practical aid 
to navigation is due to Lieutenant 
Maury. When, in the early forties, he 
started his system of collecting infor- 
mation in regard to winds, currents, and 
other matters pertaining to the ocean, 
it was with a view of eventually being 


7O 


able to predict to the mariner, with a 
reasonable degree of probability, all 
necessary meteorological data for any 
period of the year. 

For convenience, we will only con- 
sider the Pilot Chart of the North At- 
lantic, the principal references to which 
will also apply to the chart for the North 
Pacific. 

A short résumé of the manner in which 
information is collected for this chart, 
followed by a general description of the 
subject-matter, will give the best idea 
of its use and value. ‘The data col- 
lected by Maury from 1844 to 1861 were, 
generally speaking, taken from the log 
books of vessels for individual 5° squares 
on the world’s water surface, and in the 
majority of cases gave intormation for 
each hour of the day in whatever part 
of the world any observing vessel hap- 
pened to be. 

About twenty years ago it was 
deemed advisable to alter this system of 
collecting information, and the ob- 
servers of the office were furnished with 
a blank observation book, in which the 
data required were to be taken by all 
observers only once a day and at the 
same instant of time—Greenwich mean 
noon. ‘The observations thus recorded 
give the direction and force of the winds 
the reading of the barometer and ther- 
mometers, the temperature of the water, 
the character and percentage of cloud, 
visible, and the character of the sea. 
Immediately upon the arrival in port of 
a vessel taking such observations, these 
weather reports are sent either by mail 
or through the United States consul to 
the Hydrographic Office, where the in- 
formation mentioned above is plotted 
on a synoptic chart. This chart is di- 
vided into squares of 5 degrees of lati- 
tude and 5 degrees of longitude, and 
each element of information previously 
mentioned, except clouds and the state 
of the sea, is indicated in its respective 
square by a particular symbol. Through 
inability to get the information quickly 


Tue NartrionaL -GrocraPpHic MaGAZINE 


(as very frequently the record of a sail- 
ing vessel does not get to the Hydro- 
graphic Office until a long time after the 
observations were taken), it requires 
many months before all the records for 
any one year for each individual square 
can be collected and plotted. <A sepa- 
rate synoptic chart is used for each day 
in the year. Eventually each element 
is averaged for each month of each year 
during which the observations have been 
taken, and a mean of each month of all 
the years is transferred to the pilot 
charts proper. 


EXPLANATION OF NORTH ATLANTIC 
PILOT CHART FOR FEBRUARY, 1903 


All the possibilities and recommen- 
dations for the coming month relating 
to winds, calms, fog, gales, weather 
forecast, barometric and thermometric 
data, and steamer and sailing-vessel 
routes are noted in blue. All mat- 
ter noted in red relates to what has. 
actually occurred in the past, and is va- 
riable in character and not possible of 
prediction with any degree of certainty. 
For instance, the red lines, of which 
there are so many on the accompanying 
chart,** represent the paths of the centers. 
of storms which have actually occurred 
during thelast five years. Derelictsand 
wrecks, drifting buoys, icebergs, and 
field ice which have been actually seen 
and reported during the preceding month 
are noted in red, the positions indicat- 
ing to the mariner the region in which 
they are likely to be found. 

This chart thus becomes a continuous. 
warning to seamen for the month on 
the first day of which it is issued, and 
is of practical economic benefit, in that 
it operates to shorten ocean travel and 
to lessen dangers to life and property. 
The information given is considered so: 
important that the agents of many of 
our great transatlantic liners telegraph 


*The chart is issued as a Supplement to 
this number of the NaTloNAL GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE. 


Work oF THE U.S. HyprocrapHic OFFICE 71 


the positions of wrecks, derelicts, and 
ice to their home offices as soon as they 
are informed thereof by the Hydro- 
graphic Office or by its branch offices 
along our Atlantic seaboard. 

In order to still further aid navi- 
gators by giving timely notice of new 
dangers reported, it has been found 
necessary to supplement the Pilot Charts 
by the Hydregraphic Bulletin, which is 
issued weekly and gives the latest in- 
formation of wrecks, derelicts, ice, and 
other dangers to navigation. 

It has been found advisable, in fact 
necessary, to have articles from time to 
time on the Pilot Chart treating of some 
essential for the navigator in the man- 
agement of his vessel. Thus, during 
each of the cyclone months in the North 
Atlantic, an illustrated article is printed 
either on the face of the chart or, if 
there is not room there, on its back, 
explaining the nature of cyclones, the 
method of avoiding them, and, when 
caught in them, proper directions for 
managing a vessel. Articles on the use 
of oil at sea, which have been the means 
of saving valuable ships and of rescuing 
the crews of wrecked vessels; on the 
use of instruments necessary in navi- 
gation; on the features which cause 
disturbances of the compass, and on 
various methods for obtaining the posi- 
tions of vessels at sea and for plotting 
the positions near a coast, are issued 
whenever space and time permit. 

Until within the past year this Pilot 
Chart was unique in being the only 
thing of the kind published in the world; 
but its importance to maritime interests 
had been so thoroughly proved and the 
necessity for immediate notice of all 
dangers, particularly on frequently trav- 
eled routes, had become so evident that 
two other natious—England, the oldest 
sea power, and Germany, the young- 
est—took up the matter and are now 
issuing similar publications. 

I know of no government publica- 
tion of more interest to those who go to 


sea than this, and feel sure that you 
will agree with me after a short résumé 
of what it actually does for the mariner. 
Let us consider the chart for the month 
of February, 1903. 

In the upper left-hand corner of the 
accompanying Pilot chart is a fog inset 
chart, which is divided into 1° squares, 
each one of which contains a number 
which indicates the percentage of days 
of each month—~. ¢., the number of days 
in each one hundred—in which the 
weather may reasonably be expected to 
be foggy, these percentages being the 
result of thousands of observations for 
years back. ‘They are only probabilities, 
but they are good probabilities, and the 
sailor makes use of them. But a short 
time ago the captain of the flagship 
Brooklyn told me that when conveying 
the remains of the late Lord Pauncefote 
to England last summer, the season of 
maximum fog frequency, he followed 
the fog forecast of the Pilot Chart for 
the month and found it reliable. 

None but those in charge of vessels 
can understand what a fog at sea means. 
The sense is the nearest approach to that 
of blindness that I can imagine. One 
can see for some distance at night; but 
in a thick fog such as what is known as 
the blue fog of our northern waters—a 
fog which is said by old salts to be as 
thick as mud—the sense of sight fails 
and that of hearing is brought into in- 
tense play. But even the latter sense 
fails under certain circumstances, such 
as on a high-speed steamer, where the 
noise of the engines and the swash of 
the vessel’s hill through the water shut 
off all but unusually loud sounds. In 
a late admiralty collision case—the 
cutting down of a sailing vessel by a 
steamer—the evidence showed that 
while the people on the sailing vessel 
had heard the steamer’s whistle for 20 
minutes before the collision, the officers. 
of the steamer had at no time heard the 
fog-horn of the sailing vessel. 

The same of the sub-chart of gales, 


Vaz 


which is below that of fog, in which 
percentages for a force of 8 and over 
of the Beaufort’s scale—from 40 to 100 
miles an hour—are given in 5° squares. 
No vessel other than a regular high- 
powered liner, unless absolute necessity 
demands, takes a route in which such 
gales are frequent, on account of the 
danger to life and property, the wear on 
the vessel, and the consequent delay. 
This sub-chart tells them the only things 
they want to know—how to avoid the 
stormy area and what route to choose. 

The best routes for low-powered 
steamers, from the English Channel to 
the Gulf and from Gibraltar to New 
York, are also shown. ‘he latter, for 
instance, is longer in distance than a 
direct route. Experience has shown, 
however, that by reason of encounter- 
ing more favorable winds, seas, and cur- 
rents, it is shorter in time, with much 
less wear and tear on the vessel and 
crew. 

Down in the lower left-hand corner 
are some red symbols to designate ice- 
bergs and field ice. No bergs or field 
ice were reported during January, so 
none are indicated on the accompanying 
chart. On the pilot charts of the sum- 
mer months, however, the region above 
and about the Grand Banks is dotted 
with these little red symbols. If we 
were issuing a pilot chart of the south 
Atlantic Ocean for this month, these ice 
symbols would be very numerous in its 
southern portion. 

You may remember that it was not 
many years ago that we had frequent 
reports of vessels collidfng with ice- 
bergs ; but such is now very much less 
the case, principally due, I feel that I 
can say with absolute truthfulness, to 
the efforts of the Hydrographic Office, 
as a result of which the transatlantic 
lines were, some ‘years ago, induced to 
adopt regular lanes of transit to and 
from England and the United States— 
lanes which take them over a safer 
route, in that it is practically clear of ice. 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


Over on the right-hand side of the 
pilot chart is a sub-chart of isobars and 
isotherms for the month of February, 
showing the average heights of barom- 
eter and temperature to be expected, 
and indicating, by reference to the areas 
of low and high barometer, what move- 
ment of the atmosphere may generally 
be looked for. ‘The intelligent mariner 
knows that any marked deviation from 
these normal values denotes a change 
in weather. 

Above this sub-chart will be found 
a forecast—not a prediction—of the 
weather, the average of thousands of 
observations taken during the past fif- 
teen years. 

The main or sea part of the chart 
is divided up into 5° squares, in the 
center of each one of which will be 
found a small circle from which radiate 
arrows, each one pointing towards the 
center. ‘These arrows indicate the di- 
rection in which winds may be expected 
to blow, the number of feathers indicat- 
ing the force by Beaufort’sscale. Take 
the example noted in blue under the 
heading of ‘‘ Prevailing Winds and 
Calms,’’ at the bottom of the chart on 
the left side. The arrows fly with the 
wind, and the number of hours in each 
one hundred during which the wind 
may be expected to blow from that 
direction is found by transferring the 
length of the arrow to the scale below, 
the number of feathers indicating the 
force. ‘Thus, in this example, we will 
in each one hundred hours expect to 
find a northeast wind with a force of 
3 for 18 hours; an east wind, force 
of 3 for 10 hours; a southeast wind, 
force of 4 for 24 hours; a south-south- 
east wind, force of 3 for 25 hours, and 
a southwest wind, force of 3 for 10 
hours. The figure 13 within the cen- 
tral circle indicates 13 hours of calms, 
light airs, and variable winds. 

The small black arrows point out the 
average set of currents, whether regular 
or drift. 


Work or THE U. S. HyproGraPHic OFFICE 


The long red lines on the face of the 
chart represent paths of the centers of 
well-determined storms which have oc- 
curred in previous years during the 
month of February. ‘Tropical cyclones 
do not occur on the north Atlantic dur- 
ing this month, but storms of great vio- 
lence are frequent. From an examina- 
tion it is plainly evident that an average 
storm track for the month would be of 
no practical value ; but these of previous 
years are most useful as, if from indica- 
tions of weather, sea, and barometer, 
the seaman finds himself on or near the 
track of one of these, he has good rea- 
son to suppose that he will experience 
a similar one. 


DERELICTS 


Notice the symbols for derelicts and 
wrecks at the lower left-hand corner 
and observe the large number of these 
obstructions on the body of the chart. 
These, with icebergs and fogs, and par- 
ticularly a combination of all three, 
give the mariner the greatest anxiety. 
Each one of these constitutes a menace 
to life and property, most dangerous 
because not plotted on any other chart 
nor marked in any manner. ‘Those 
symbols on the chart which are bot- 
tom up give warning of especially dan- 
gerous derelicts, the kind that show 
so little surface above water as not to 
be seen, even in daylight, until close at 
hand. We read too often of vessels 
which have put to sea and never been 
heard of afterward, and we can easily 
imagine that some of them have been 
lost through collision with these floating 
dangers. A collision with an abandoned 
vessel laden with either coal, iron ore, 
or steel rails would materially damage 
any vessel afloat. 

Only a few years ago a large Dutch 
transatlantic liner struck a submerged 
wreck which broke her propeller and 
probably stove a hole in her bottom. 
‘The steamer was abandoned in a sink- 
ing condition, but fortunately not be- 


13 


fore another steamer had come along 
and rescued the passengers and crew. 

During one interval of seven years 
the total number of derelicts reported 
amounted to 1,628, of which 482 had 
been identified by name. ‘This means 
an average of1g per month —that is, it is 
reasonable to believe that there are never 
less than 19 of these floating dangers in 
the north Atlantic all the time, and the 
records of the Hydrographic Office show 
that the average time a derelict remains 
afloat is about thirty days. ‘The identi- 
fied ones are easily followed and their 
tracks plotted on the pilot chart from 
month to month. A few remarkable 
instances of ocean drift may be inter- 
esting. 

A three-masted schooner, Zhe Fannie 
£. Wolston, was abandoned on October 
15, 1891, and frequently seen after that 
for 1,101 days—three years and six 
days—at the end of which time, after 
traveling about 9,000 miles, she was 
lost sight of. 

Take the case of the lumber-laden 
schooner JV. L. White. She was aban- 
doned waterlogged about 80 miles off 
the capes of the Delaware during the 
great blizzard of March, 1888. She 
drifted 5,910 miles, following the Gulf 
Stream a good way across the At- 
lantic, and about eleven months later 
stranded on one of the Hebrides, hav- 
ing been sighted and reported forty-five 
times during the interval. For over 
six months of this time she was a con- 
stant menace to our transatlantic coim- 
merce. 

And another interesting case is that 
of the ship Fred B. Taylor, which was 
cut in two by a steamer, the two parts 
remaining afloat. Strange to say, these 
parts separated, the stern drifting to the 
northward and going ashore on the 
Maine coast forty-six days later, and 
the bow drifting to the southward and 
being lost sight of off the Maryland 
coast seventy-two days later. 

From September, 1889, up to the 


14 


present time the Hydrographic Office 
has received reports of 127 collisions 
with ice, derelicts, and wreckage in 
the north Atlantic alone, and others 
probably occurred which were never 
heard of. 

The Navy Department exercises an 
espionage over all wrecks and derelicts 
on our Atlantic seaboard which are out- 
side of the three-mile limit, and when 
deemed necessary sends vessels out to 
destroy them or tow them in. During 
the past year 38 dangerous obstructions 
were hunted for on our coast by vessels 
of the Navy, of which number 15 were 
located and destroyed. It is to be re- 
gretted that no international legislation 
provides for the destruction of such dan- 
gers in the broad ocean. 

This pilot chart keeps our Weather 
Bureau’s storm signals before the mar- 
iner, tells him where to find our branch 
hydrographic offices, and gives him no 
excuse for not knowing what charts are 
published, canceled, or extensively cor- 
rected. 


THE VALUE OF THE PILOT CHARTS 
TO SHIPPERS 


I think you will now admit that, as 
far as our government is concerned, the 
mariner is fairly well looked out for. 
Our Weather Bureau watches over him 
while in our home ports, and the Hydro- 
graphic Office does all possible to guide 
and guard him while at sea. 

Many complimentarycommunications 
on the work of this office have been re- 
ceived from outside our own country, one 
of which I feel justified in reading to 
you, as it is from the highest maritime 
authority in the world—the British 
Lloyd’s: 

Lioyn’s, 78th July, 7902. 

Str: I am instructed to express to 
you the best thanks of the Committee 
of Lloyd’s for the Pilot Chart of the 
North Pacific, which is forwarded to 
this office periodically by your instruc- 
tions. ‘This chart is believed to be of 


THe NatTionaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


great value to mariners navigating the 
waters of the North Pacific, and I am 
directed to inquire whether there is any 
intention on the part of the Hydro- 
graphic Bureau to have a similar chart 
constructed for the South Pacific.* 

I am, sir, your obedient servant, 

Jas. M. Hozikr, 
Secretary. 
The Chief of the Hydrographic 
Bureau, Washington. 

Last month’s Nautical Magazine con- 
tained a copy of a speech in the House 
of Lords by Lord Ellenborough, urging 
the printing of tables by which the cen- 
tering error of a sextant could be deter- 
mined at any time. In concluding this 
speech Lord Ellenborough quoted an ex- 
tract from a letter from the late Captain 
Lecky, whose publication ‘‘ Wrinkles 
in Navigation’? madehimfamous. The 
quotation was as follows: 

“*T certainly think the Nautical Al- 
manac ought to undertake the star dis- 
tances; but you will probably find the 
United States Hydrographic Office will 
doit. They have no hesitation in un- 
dertaking anything they think worth 
doing, whereas our people take a few 
years to think about it.’’ 

Having thus sketched the work of the 
Hydrographic Office, it becomes my 
pleasure to say that the results achieved 
by this office are due to the intelligent, 
zealous, systematic, and painstaking ef- 
forts of as competent an office force as 
can be found in any similar office in any 
country. Some are graduates of the 
Naval Academy, and these, with many 
others, are practically devoting their 
lives to this good work. 

In conclusion, I hope that I have 
made it clear that the mission of the 
Hydrographic Office is to provide for 
the safe navigation of American ship- 


* The Hydrographic Office is considering the 
plan of publishing Pilot Charts of both the 
South Pacific and South Atlantic Oceans. Itis 
hoped that in the near future it may be feas- 
ible to publish these additional Pilot Charts. 
Editor. 


Wuy Great SALT 


ping in all foreign waters by obtaining 
and disseminating necessary information 
on all nautical subjects, a knowledge of 
which tends to reduce the dangers of 
navigation to a minimum. ‘This also 
means that its work is a practical prepar- 
ation for war, inasmuch as the results 
form a safeguard for our Navy the im- 


 WWIBIYC GARI yA GR 


By Ii. el, 


Lake Has FALLEN 


15 


portance of which cannot be over- 
estimated. 

There can be no question as to the 
necessity for this work when we con- 
sider that even now, with our far-reach- 
ing distribution of aids to navigation, 
no less than 5,000 lives, on an average, 
are lost at sea each year. 


ICAU CIS, Jealecy Je aU ILI) 


Murpocu 


SECTION DIRECTOR, U. S. WEATHER BUREAU 


HE rapid decline in the water 
level of Great Salt Lake during 
the past few years has caused 
the people of northern Utah, and more 
especially those of Salt Lake City, to 
feel considerable apprehension lest this 
remarkable body of water will soon be 
athing of the past. The reading of the 
gage at Garfield Beach on December 1, 
1902, was 3 feet 5 inches below the zero 
of the scale, showing a fall of 11 feet 
7 inches since the close of 1886, the 
year in which the last rise terminated, 
and a level between three and four feet 
below that of 1847. 

The water level of a closed lake may 
be affected by a change in the general 
inclination of its basin, and will fall as 
the result of increased temperature, de- 
creased relative humidity, shortage in 
precipitation, or increased evaporation 
as a result of spreading the water from 
inflowing streams over the soil for irri- 
gation or any other purpose. 

The present fall in the lake is evi- 
dently due to a combination of shortage 
in precipitation and the loss of water 
through irrigation, but the shortage in 
precipitation is undoubtedly the pre- 
dominating factor. 

The present area of the lake is about 
1,750 square miles, and its drainage 


basin is about twenty times that area. 
The normal annual precipitation for the 
entire drainage basin is about 14 inches, 
and the annual evaporation from the 
surface of the lake isabout 5 feet. The 
report of the Twelfth Census shows that 
in 1899 the amount of land irrigated in 
the basin of the lake was 609 square 
miles, which is a trifle more than double 
that under irrigation in 1889. 

Flynn’s table giving the duty of 
water in irrigating shows that for Utah 
the duty is 2.38 acre inches for 1o days, 
which is 23.80 acre inches for 100 days, 
or the irrigation season. The writer is 
not aware that any experiments have 
been made in northern Utah to deter- 
mine the loss of irrigation water by 
evaporation and percolation. The soil 
in the drainage basin of the Great Salt 
Lake is generally a sandy loam, which 
would favor quite rapid percolation, but 
not very rapid evaporation. Judging 
from the results obtained in other 
states, and making due allowance for 
the low relative humidity of this region, 
it is believed that 12 inches for evapora- 
tion and the growing plant is an ample 
allowance. This would leave 11.80 
inches to be returned to the lake or its 
tributaries by subterranean courses. 

The present area of the lake is nearly 


740 


three times that of the land under irri- 
gation. With precipitation at normal, 
the loss of 12 acre inches of water by 
means of irrigation should therefore 
produce the first year a fall of four 
inches in the lake level, and a decreas- 
ing fall every year thereafter until a 
balance would be reached between the 
area of the lake and the amount of 
water it received, when no further fall 
would occur as a result of irrigation. 

The problem is necessarily a very in- 
tricate one, and at best only general 
results can be obtained from the most 
careful calculations. The writer, how- 
ever, feels confident that irrigation can- 
not be charged with more than three or 
four feet of the last decline in the lake 
level. It should be borne in mind that 
irrigation began in 1848, and was in 
operation during the years the lake rose 
rapidly and maintained a high level. 

The precipitation data for Salt Lake 
City, including that for Ft. Douglas, are 
complete back to 1863, with the excep- 
tion of 1866, and that has been approx- 
imated at 22.25 inches. The average 
precipitation for this locality, using all 
the data up to the close of 1901, is 16.65 
inches. 

From 1865 to 1886 a wet cycle pre- 
vailed, and during that time the average 
annual precipitation was 18.42 inches, 
or 1.77 inches above the normal. From 
1887 to 1902 a dry cycle has prevailed, 
the average precipitation during this 
period, estimating the precipitation for 
December of 1902 at normal, being 14.80 
inches, or 1.85 inches below normal. 

During the wet cycle the lake rose 
rapidly from about 3 feet in 1864 to 
about 13 feet in 1868. A decline then 
followed, but the reading was nearly 13 
feet again‘in 1876. The last rise ter- 
minated in 1886, when the level of 9 
feet 2 inches was reached. Since 1887 
there has been a steady decline in the 
level, the total fall from the close of 
1886 to the close of 1902 being nearly 
namieet: 


Tue Nationa GEoGRAPHIC MaGaAZINE 


With the annual precipitation reduced 
to 14.80 inches at Salt Lake City, the 
lake would not fall without limit, but. 
after a number of years, as in the case 
of the loss resulting from irrigation, a 
balance would be reached between the 
area of the lake and its inflow and the 
decline would thereupon terminate. 

The fall in lake level has been much 
more rapid during the past three years. 
than for any like period during the pre- 
ceding years of drouth. ‘This is mainly 
due to the fact that the deficiency in 
precipitation has been greater during 
this period than during any similar 
period of the present dry cycle. The 
precipitation record at Salt Lake City 
for 1901 does not fairly represent con- 
ditions for the entire basin. From May 
2 to 4 4.08 inches of rain fell there, but 
the excessive rainfall covered only Salt 
Lake, Davis, and small portions of ad- 
joining counties, about one-twentieth of 
the basin, while the rainfall for other 
portions was comparatively light. The 
rise in the lake during the two weeks 
ended May 15 was only 1 inch, no more 
than would be expected though no pre- 
cipitation had occurred. If the precip- 
itation at Salt Lake City for rg01 were 
to be approximated from that of the 
rest of the basin, it would have to be 
placed at about 13 inches. This would 
make the deficiency for the last three 
years alone over 13 inches. 

The lake is not alone in showing the 
effects of thedrouth. Streams, springs, 
and artesian wells are drying up, and 
those which continue active are dis- 
charging much less water than a few 
years ago. 

While it is difficult to demonstrate 
mathematically just how much fall in 
the lake level is due to irrigation and 
how much to a shortage in precipita- 
tion, it seems to the writer that the large 
deficiency of 29.60 inches in precipita- 
tion during the past sixteen years, as 
shown by the Salt Lake City records, 
must be far more of a factor than any 


GeocraPHic Nores 


possible loss of water resulting from 
irrigating 609 square miles of land. 

Drier weather than that which has 
prevailed during the past sixteen years 
has never been known in Utah, and this 
is a pretty good indication that the pre- 
cipitation for the next sixteen years will 
not average less than for the past six- 
teen. 

Even with precipitation continuing at 
about 15 inches, no further fall in the 
lake will occur, and if the annual pre- 
cipitation is as much as 15 inches for 
the next three years, a slight rise may 
be expected. 

Excessive precipitation is not drawn 
upon for irrigation, and its loss from 
evaporation is much less in proportion 
than that of normal or deficient precipi- 
tation. The result is that when exces- 
sive precipitation occurs the lake re- 
ceives nearly all of the excess, and 
therefore rises rapidly. 


TA, 


The question naturally arises, How 
long will the present dry cycle con- 
tinue? In an article entitled ‘‘ Precipi- 
tation Cycles,’’ recently published, the 
writer has pretty conclusively shown 
that weather about as dry as that in 
progress prevailed in Utah from about 
1827 to 1864, a period of thirty-seven 
years. While it is known that a cycle 
of dry weather is followed by a number 
of years of excessive precipitation, and 
this in turn by another dry cycle, it is 
not believed that these recurring periods 
are of equal length. ‘The past in this 
regard, with our present knowledge and 
accumulation of data, is therefore no 
index to the future. A wet cycle like 
that which began in 1865 may begin 
next year, or it may not begin for fifty 
or more years. When it does occur the 
lake will respond rapidly and reach 
levels nearly as high as those recorded 
in the sixties and seventies. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


AMERICAN CLAIMS IN THE 
ANTARCTIC 


URING the first half of the nine- 
teenth century numerous Amer- 

ican seamen explored portions of the 
South Polar regions and made many 
and important discoveries there. They 
named a number of places, and in sev- 
eral instances the lands they discovered 
were called afterthem. With the pres- 
ent reawakened interest in the Antarc- 
tic, it is imperatively necessary that 
American geographers should see to it 
that American Antarctic discoverers re- 
ceive due recognition for their discov- 
eries, and that American names should 
not be crowded off Antarcticcharts. It 
is a pleasure to state that the British 
Admiralty, in its official charts Nos. 
1238 and 1240, shows a desire to be per- 
fectly fair to American explorers, a 


statement which unfortunately cannot 
be made of the authors of many semi- 
official or private English charts. For 
instance, on the charts in ‘‘’The Ant- 
arctic Manual’”’ of 1901, of allof Wilkes’ 
discoveries only ‘‘ Knox Land”’ is 
marked, and all other American names, 
including that of Wilkes, are omitted. 

In East Antarctica the name ‘‘ Wilkes 
Land,’’ and also the names given by 
Wilkes, ‘‘ Ringgold Knoll, Eld Peak, 
Reynolds Peak, Cape Hudson, Point 
Case, Point Alden, Piner Bay, Cape 
Carr, North Land, Totten Land, Budd 
Land, Knox Land,”’ should certainly be 
marked on all atlases. In West Ant- 
arctica there are two American names 
which require prominent places, ‘‘Pal- 
mer Land and Pendleton Bay.’’ Na- 
thaniel B. Palmer was probably the dis- 
coverer, and certainly the first explorer 
of the north coast of West Antarctica, 


78 


and Benjamin Pendleton, before 1828, 
discovered a great bay or strait on the 
coast which, not before 1832, received 
the name of Graham Land. 

It would be a great help in obtaining 
justice for American explorers if an 
official chart of the Antarctic could be 
prepared by the United States Hydro- 
graphic Office, so as to place officially 
before the world American claims in the 
Antarctic, and the National Geographic 
Society could do no more important 
work in the next few years than to in- 
sist that proper recognition be given to 
distinguished American Antarctic ex- 
plorers, and that their names be com- 
memorated by remaining attached to 
their discoveries. 

EDWIN Swirt BALCH. 


RECLAMATION OF ARID LAND IN 
CALIFORNIA 


HE greatest opportunity for the 
reclamation of arid lands in Cali- 

fornia, and perhaps in the entire South- 
west, has been found to lie in the utiliza- 
tion of the waters of the Colorado River 
on its adjacent lands in California and 
southern Arizona. As a result of an 
investigation along this river, made by 
the hydrographic branch of the United 
States Geological Survey, the extent of 
the alluvial bottom land between Camp 
Mohave and Yuma was found to be from 
400,000 to 500,000 acres. Extended 
surveys were begun November 1, 1902, 
to determine the area and quality of these 
bottom lands, the possibility of diverting 
water to them, and the probable expense 
of their reclamation. ‘To this end a 
hydrographic survey of the region was 
begun, including the gaging of the river, 
the location of canal lines, soil analysis, 
and the determination of silt and evapo- 
ration; and a topographic map of the 
lands upon which distribution systems 
may be considered was made. ‘This 
map, on which the topographic features 
are clearly and accurately shown, will be 


‘rado, and Wyoming. 
c=) 


Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MaGAZINE 


of great value in assisting engineers to 
locate the main canal lines, and is essen- 
tial to a comprehensive knowledge of the 
river asa whole. About one hundred 
men are engaged in these investigations 
for the United States Geological Survey, 
Mr E. T. Perkins being in charge of the 
engineering field work, Mr E. C. Bar- 
nard in charge of the topographic map- 
ping, and Mr J. B. Lippincott, resident 
hydrographer for California, consulting 
engineer on investigations. 

The demands for irrigation in the Col- 
orado Valley are urgent. ‘The average 
rainfall at Camp Mohave is only 5.99 
inches per annum, and at Yuma it is 
3.06 inches per annum, while the tem- 
peratures are such as to provide twelve 
growing months inthe year. The Col- 
orado River derives its principal source 
of water supply from the melting snow 
on the high mountains of Utah, Colo- 
It reaches the 
stage of maximum flow, approximately 
50,000 cubic feet per second, in the 
months of May and June, when the de- 
mand for irrigation is normally the high- 
est; its minimum flow, about 4,000 cubic 
feet per second, occurs in the mouths of 
January and February, at the time of 
least demand. The opportunities for 
storage on this stream are very great. 

The silts of the river are difficult to 
handle in canals; but the fertilizing 
properties which they have are such 
that lands irrigated with these muddy 
waters will never require further fertili- 
zation. 

Mr R. H. Forbes, of the Agricultural 
Experiment Station at Tucson, Ariz., 
who has made a study of the silt in the 
Colorado River, has pointed out that 
this stream resembles the Nile in many 
particulars. Like the great river of 
Egypt, the Colorado is subject to an an- 
nual summer rise sufficient to overflow 
the extensive areas of its borders and 
deltalands. These high waters are rich 
in fertilizing sediments, are exception- 
ally free from alkaline salts, and come 


GeocraPHic Nores 


at an opportune time for irrigation. 
Mr Forbes maintains that when the Col- 
orado is understood and utilized as suc- 
cessfully as the greater and better-known 
Egyptian stream, it will be recognized 
as the American Nile—the creator of a 
new country for the irrigator, the mother 
of an occidental Egypt. 


ALASKAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE 


Y the terms of a treaty signed Janu- 
ary 24 by Secretary Hay and the 
British Ambassador, the Alaskan bound- 
ary dispute is to be referred to a special 
commission or tribunal consisting of 
three jurists from the United States and 
three from Canada. ‘The vote of four 
members of the commission will be a 
binding decision. ‘Thisis the plan origi- 
nally proposed by the American members 
of the Joint High Commission, but 
which was rejected at that time by the 
British Commissioners. The Senate will 
doubtless ratify the treaty, so that this 
vexing question of the interpretation of 
the treaty of 1825, raised by Great 
Britain for the first time in 1898 after 
the American interpretation had been 
accepted for 73 years without a protest 
or complaint, will soon be settled. In 
this connection attention should be again 
directed to the masterly discussion of the 
dispute by Hon. John W. Foster, ex- 
Secretary of State and of the Joint High 
Commission, in the November, 1899, 
number of the National, GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE. 


RECENT MAPS AND PUBLICATIONS BY 
THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


HE latest and most complete repre- 
sentation of the physical features 

of southern Indiana are found in a 
series of topographic map sheets issued 
by the Survey and known as the Degonia 
Springs, Boonville, and Belton sheets— 
each sheet being named froma prominent 
place appearing on it—and covering por- 


LY) 


tions of Warwick, Spencer, Dubois, Pike, 
Gibson, and Vanderburg counties. 

As a part of its investigation of the 
coal-producing regions of the country, 
the Survey has also issued, as Geologic 
Folio No. 84, a series of maps covering 
the larger portion of the coal region in- 
cluded in the First Congressional District 
of Indiana. ‘The quadrangular area coy- 
ered embraces nearly 1,000 square miles, 
and includes parts of Pike, Vanderburg, 
Warrick, Spencer, and Dubois counties. 

The Survey, in cooperation with the 
State of Maine, has recently issued a 
new map of the region surrounding the 
entrance to the Penobscot River, known 
as the Castine quadrangle. The map 
differs from the charts issued by the 
Coast and Geodetic Survey in giving the 
details of features on the islands and 
the mainland, whereas the latter maps 
are confined almost exclusively to the 
marine features of the region—sound- 
ings, channels, and the outlines of the 
coast. 

A topographic map of the region em- 
bracing Ticonderoga, in New York and 
Vermont, has been issued by the Sur- 
vey. It is the result of a survey made 
in cooperation with the State of New 
York. 

A map of East Liverpool and Wells- 
ville, Ohio, and vicinity will be issued 
at an early date. ‘The surveys were in 
chargeof Van H. Manning, topographer, 
who completed the mapping of an area 
comprising 225 square miles along the 
Ohio River, which will include portions 
of Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsyl- 
vania. 

A detailed topographic map has been 
issued of a portion of the San Bernar- 
dina Valley, California, noted as one of 
the most highly developed irrigation 
districts in the country. 

A reprint has been made of the map 
covering the famous Franklin Furnace 
Mining region in New Jersey. 

Recent publications by the Survey 
include: 


80 


“Development and application of 
Water near San Bernardino, Colton, and 
Riverside, California,’’ by J. B. Lippin- 
cott, resident hydrographer for the State 
of California. Mr Lippincott presents 
some striking instances of what may be 
done by irrigation. On land that fifteen 
years ago was worth barely 75 cents an 
acre as a Sheep pasture now flourish, as 
a result of irrigation, orchards of orange 
and citrous trees yielding a net revenue 
of $100 an acre. 

“Sewage Pollution in the Streams 
Adjacent to New York City,’’ by Mar- 
shall O. Leighton; a discussion of the 
incalculable damage to property along 
the Passaic River of New Jersey, and 
along the streams flowing into the upper 
Hudson by discharge of city sewage. 

‘The Possibilities of Increasing the 
Water Supply of Central Washington,”’ 


by F. C. Calkins, of the hydrographic ~ 


division of the Survey. 

‘“Geology of the Globe Copper Dis- 
trict, Arizona,’’ by Dr Frederick L. 
Ransome. 


TIMBER LINES 


N interesting paper on ‘‘ Timber 

Lines’’ was presented by Prof. 

Israel C. Russell to the recent meeting 

in Washington, D. C., of the Gelogical 

Society of America. The following is 
an abstract of the address : 

““<Timber line,’ as commonly de- 
fined, is the upper limit of arboreal veg- 
etation on mountains. Its position is 
determined mainly by the occurrence of 
a mean annual temperature of about 32 
degrees Fahrenheit, but locally its ele- 
vation is regulated by soil conditions 
and by differences between various lo- 
calities.in snow-fall, severity of winter 
storms, exposure to the sun, ete. It 
may with propriety be termed the ‘cold 
timber-line.’ Above it on high moun- 
tains there is commonly a region occu- 
pied by alpine flowers, and still higher 
a region of perpetual snow. When 


THe Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


traced from warm to colder regions or, 
in general, from the equator toward 
either pole, it becomes lower and lower. 
In North America it descends nearly to 
sea-level in Alaska and northern Can- 
ada, where it defines the northern limit 
of the subarctic forest and becomes the 
‘continental timber-line,’ to the north 
of which lie the barren grounds and 
tundras, which correspond to the zone 
of alpine flowers on lofty mountains in 
temperate latitudes. 

‘*On some of the mountain ranges of 
the arid portion of the United States 
there is a lower limit of tree growth, 
the position of which is determined in 
the main by insufficient moisture, and 
locally by soil conditions, including the 
presence of alkali, hot winds, forest 
fires, exposure to the sun, etc. This 
may be termed the ‘dry timber-line’. 
Below it are treeless, grass-covered 
plains and valleys. On the mountains 
of central Idaho, the cold timber-line is 
sharply drawn at an elevation of about 
10,000 feet, while the dry timber-line, 
equally well defined, has an elevation 
of about 7,000 feet; between the two 
there is a belt of forest trees which en- 
circles the mountains. In southeastern 
Oregon, Nevada, southern California, 
etc., where the climate is excessively 
arid, the dry timber-line is higher than 
in Idaho, and in certain localities meets 
the cold timber-line, and the mountains 
are bare of trees from base to summit. 
The dry timber-line decreases in ele- 
vation when traced from arid to humid 
regions. In the central part of the con- 
tinental basin of North America, it de- 
fines the border of the treeless portion 
of the Great Plateaus and the prairie 
plains, and at the north coincides with 
the southern limit of the subarctic 
forest. On the borders of the treeless 
plateaus and the prairie plains the posi- 
tion of the margin of the encircling 
forest is determined mainly by lack of 
moisture, but is varied locally by soil 
conditions, hot winds, forest fires, etc., 


GeocraPpHic Noress 


in the same manner that the lower limit 
of tree growth on the mountains of 
arid region is regulated. 

““When the humidity is sufficient for 
the growth of trees, as for example on 
the mountains of New England, the 
dry timber-line disappears. An arid 
tTegion may be bordered at a lower ele- 
vation by a region with sufficient hu- 
midity to permit trees to grow, and 
may then be bordered both above and 
below by the dry timber-line, as is the 
‘case in southern Idaho. Where an 
arid region reaches sea-level, as in Ari- 
zona, southern California, and the west 
coast of Mexico, etc , there is no forest 
below the arid belt, and in certain 
localities the dry timber-line meets the 
‘cold timber-line, and the mountains are 
bare of trees from sea-level to their 
‘summits. 

‘“There is also a third general cause 
which draws a limit to timber growth, 
namely, excessive humidity, as for ex- 
ample on the borders of swamps, the 
margins of lakes, etc., which may per- 
haps be termed the ‘wet timber line.’ 


-RECLAMATION OF THE HIGH PLAINS 


HE efforts of the hydrographic 
branch of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey are being directed to the 
discovery of sufficient water to lead to 
the reclamation and habitation of that 
area of the Great Plains lying west of 
the prairies and east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, commonly known as the High 
Plains. ‘The section is admirably suited 
to agriculture and grazing except for its 
inadequate water supply, which is so 
uncertain that great areas of fertile land 
lie quite uninhabited. 

This is especially true of the regions 
lying between the river valleys which 
cross it at wide intervals. ‘These broad 
intervalley plateaus are practically wa- 
terless, but it has been discovered that 
water may be had from underground 
sources by wells and windmills, and it 


81 


has been demonstrated that, while the 
region may not be largely reclaimable 
by irrigation, it may be successfully 
used for grazing by creating stock- 
watering points at comparatively close 
intervals. It will, however, be difficult, 
if not impossible, for the grazers to 
raise anything besides fodder cane of 
the drought-resisting varieties, such as 
Kaffir corn. Vegetables and other pro- 
ducts will, for the most part, probably 
have to be grown elsewhere. 

The river valleys, on the other hand, 
seem destined to be extensively culti- 
vated by irrigation, the water for which 
will be pumped from the gravels of the 
river beds, where an underflow has been 
known to continue in the summer season 
after the rivers themselves have ceased 
torun. ‘These areas will furnish garden 
produce for the ranches on the plateau, 
and in this manner make the region asa 
whole habitable. The details of this 
investigation, with exhaustive studies of 
the nature of the underground waters of 
the High Plains, appear in the T'wenty- 
first and Twenty-second Annual Reports 
of the United States Geological Survey, 
the latter of which is now in press and 
will soon be issued. 


Commander Robert E. Peary, at a recent 
meeting of the Geographical Society 
of Phijadelphia, declared that he was 
willing to lead another expedition in 
search of the North Pole if some wealthy 
Arctic enthusiast was ready to put up 
$150,000 to finance the expedition. Mr 
Peary believes that by making Cape 
Hekla the base, as outlined in the last 
number of this Magazine, the Pole could 
be reached, but it would take two years 
to do it. 


The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
Steamer Blake, commanded by Capt. 
R. L. Faris, arrived at San Juan, Porto 
Rico, January 27, and reports a success- 
ful series of daily magnetic observations 
aboard ship on the passage between the 


82 


Capes of the Chesapeake and San Juan, 
Porto Rico. ‘These observations were 
made under the direction of Prof. lL. A. 
Bauer, Chief of the Magnetic Division 
of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 


Mr William Ziegler authorizes this Mag- 
azine to announce that he intends tosend 
forth another north polar expedition this 
summer. ‘The party will go north on 
the America. ‘The personnel of the ex- 
pedition is not yet complete so that a 
list of the members cannot now be given. 


Two maps of Guatemala, each on the 
scale of 12.5 miles to one inch, have re- 
cently been published by the Bureau of 
American Republics. In addition to 
names of towns, volcanoes, railways, 
telegraph stations, etc., one map shows 
the approximate location of minerals in 
Guatemala, and the other the general 
elevation and the agricultural features 
of the country. 


The Carnegie Institution has made a 
grant of $5,000 for the purposes of ex- 
ploration; also a grant of $12,000 for 
geologic exploration. 


The report of the Brown-Howard Ex- 
pedition to Labrador in 1900, by Prof. 
E. B. Delabarre, has been published by 
the Geographical Society of Philadel- 
phia. It forms a handsome volume of 
212 pages. 


NOTICE 


ERSONS who have copies of the 
following numbers of the NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and who are 
willing to sell them will confer a favor 
by writing to the National Geographic 
Society : 
Vol. 
Vol. 
Vol. 
Vol. 
Vol. 


I, nos. 2 and 4 and index. 
II, no. 2. 

JOW, CR Uy Qo Bo Ay Sp Gy Fo 
X, no. 6 and index. 

XIII, no. 1. 


Tue NatrionaL GEoGRAPHIC MaGAZINE 


DECISIONS OF THE U. S. BOARD ON 
GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 


December 3, 1902 


Arabella ; island (Canadian) in the St Law- 
rence River, near Clayton, Jefferson County, 
New York (not Ambella nor Amelia). 

Behestian ; township, Ouachita County, Ar- 
kansas (not Behrstian). 

Brakel ; creek, Chenango and Cortland Coun- 
ties, New York (not Brackel nor Braket). 

Canadarago ; lake, Otsego County, New York 
(not Schuyler). 

Cape Rosier; post-office, Hancock County, 
Maine (not Cape Rozier). 

Catatonk ; creek, post-office, and railroad sta- 
tion, Tioga County, New York (not Cata- 
tunk). 

Channahatchee ; creek, Elmore County, Ala- 
bama (not Cedar). 

Diddell; post-office and railroad station, 
Dutchess County, New York (not Didell). 

Freeo ; bayou, Douglas and Ouachita Counties,. 
and township, Ouachita County, Arkansas 

, (not Frio) 

Grenell; island in St Lawrence River, and 
post-office, Jefferson County, New York 
(not Grennell, Grinnell, nor Stuart). 

Heart ; island in St Lawrence River, Jefferson 
County, New York (not Hart nor Hem- 
lock). 

Tonia ; post-office, railroad station, and village, 
Ontario County, New York (not Millers 
Corners). 

Lake of the Isles; lake on Wellesley Island, 
St Lawrence River, Jefferson County, 
New York (not Waterloo). 

Leek ; island (Canadian), St Lawrence River, 
near Grindstone Island, Jefferson County, 
New York (not Leak nor Leaks). 

Little Tobehanna; creek, Schuyler County, 
New York (not Little Tobyhanna). 

Lounsberry ; locality, post-office, and railroad 
station, Tioga County, New York (not 
Canfields Corners). 

McGraw ; post-office, railroad station, and vil- 
lage, Cortland County, New York (not 
McGrawville). 

Millen; bay, St Lawrence River, Jefferson 
County, New York (not Mellen nor Mil- 
lens). 

Mud ; lake, Jefferson County, New York (not 
Edmund nor Edmonds). 

Nowadaga; creek, Herkimer County, New 
York (not Indian Castle nor Nouadaga). 

Ocquionis ; creek, Otsego and Herkimer Coun- 
ties, New York (not Fish). 

Osburn ; post-office and railroad station, Sho- 
shone County, Idaho (not Osborne). 

Petri; post-office and railroad station, Han- 
cook County, Kentucky (not Petrie nor 
Petri Station). 


GEOGRAPHIC 


Philomel ; creek, Jefferson County, New York 
(not Phileman nor Philemon). 

Salubrious; point, Lake Ontario, Jefferson 
County, New York (not Vesuvius). 

Savilton; locality and post-office, Orange 
County, New York (not Savil, Savill, nor 
Saville). 

Shadow; brook, Otsego County, New York 
(not East Springfield). 

Stanbro ; village, Chenango County, New York 
(not Stambro). 

Sterling ; township, Vernon County, Wiscon- 
sin (not Stirling). 

Socapatoy ; creek, precinct, and village, Coosa 
County, Alabama (not Socapartoy, Socco- 
potoy, nor Sucapatova). 


Terlingua; creek, post-office, and village, 


GEOGRAPHIC 


J. S. Diller is the author of two reports 
recently published by the U. S. Geologi- 
cal Survey—‘‘ The Geology of Crater 
Lake National Park’’ and ‘‘ Topo- 
graphic Development of the Klamath 
Mountains.’’ ‘The former tells the geo- 
logical history of the only crater lake in 
the United States. ‘The lake and sur- 
rounding country in May, 1902, was 
dedicated by Congress as a national 
park. The latter describes the develop- 
ment of the Klamath Mountains of Cali- 
fornia, a range which includes a number 
of peaks varying from 7,000 to over 
g,000 feet. ‘The reports contain some 
remarkably fine illustrations. 


“Commercial India in 1902” is the title 
of a recent monograph prepared by the 
Treasury Bureau of Statistics. This 
report shows that the commerce of India 
in 1902 was larger than that of any pre- 
ceding year in itshistory. India ranks 
sixth in the list of world’s exporting 
nations. Its exports reached $382,000, 
ooo in the fiscal year ending March 31, 
1902. 

India is one of the comparatively few 
countries of the world whose exports 
exceed imports, the exports of India in 
1902 exceeding the value of its imports 
by $127,000,000, which is a larger ex- 
cess of exports than that of any other 
country except the United States. The 


LITERATURE 


83 


Brewster County, Texas (not Latis Langua» 
Tarlinga, Tasa Lingo, Terlinga, nor Ter 
lingo). 

Tobehanna; creek, Schuyler County, New 
York (not Tobyhanna nor Big Tobyhanna). 

Travelers Rest ; post-office and precinct, Coosa 
County, Alabama (not Travellers Rest). 

Tygart; river, West Virginia (not Tygarts 
Valley nor Valley). 

Vanduzer ; post-office and railroad station, 
Ouachita County, Arkansas (not Vanduser 
nor Van Duzer). 

Volcan ; mountains, San Diego County, Cali- 
fornia (not Balcan nor Bolcan). 

Wolfe ; island (Canadian), St Lawrence River, 
near Clayton, Jefferson County, New York 
(not Grand nor Long). 


LITERATURE 


value of the imports in the fiscal year 
1902 was $264,000,000, of which prac- 
tically two-thirds were drawn from the 
United Kingdom and only 2 per cent 
from the United States. Of the ex- 
ports, 25 per cent went to the United 
Kingdom and 12 per cent were sent to 
the United States. Of the exports, rice, 
hides and skins, jute, cotton, tea, opium, 
and oil seeds are the principal items in 
the order named. ‘The principal im- 
ports are cotton manufactures, which 
form more than one-third of the total ; 
metals, hardware and cutlery, sugar, 
oils, silk, raw and manufactured; woolen 
goods, and machinery of various kinds. 


The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
has just published a List and Catalogue 
of all the publications of the Survey. It 
makes a quarto volume of 237 pages. 
The List is arranged chronologically and 
the Catalogue alphabetically, by au- 
thors, subjects, places, etc., with many 
cross-references. 


“Paraguay ” is the title of a very val- 
uable brochure of 187 pages recently 
published by the Bureau of American 
Republics. The book contains an ex- 
cellent map, some good illustrations, 
and many interesting facts about the 
country and people of the South Amer- 
ican Republic. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


The proceedings of the Society during De- 
cember, Ig02, and January, 1903, will be pub- 
lished in the March number. 


REGULAR MEETINGS. 


February 13.—‘‘The Work of the Census 
Office.’? Hon. William R. Merriam. 

February 27.—‘‘ The Work of the Naval Ob- 
servatory.’? Capt. Charles H. Davis. 

March 13.—‘‘The Work of the Geological 
Survey.’”’ Hon. Charles D. Walcott. 

March 27.—‘‘ The Work of the Library of 
Congress.’? Hon. Herbert Putnam. 

This is the last meeting of the season. 


POPULAR LECTURES. 


February 6.—‘‘From Paris to New York 
Overland.’”’ Mr Harry de Windt. (lIllus- 
trated.) This is the account of a remarkable 
journey of 18,000 miles by land from Paris to 
New York via Bering Strait. 

February 21.*—‘‘ Tropical Development, a 
Temperate Zone Problem.’’ Hon. O. P. Aus- 
tin. (Ilustrated. ) 

March 6.—‘‘ The Geographic Distribution of 
Insanity in the United States.” Dr W. A. 
White, Director of the Binghamton State 
Hospital, New York. 

March 20.—(The last lecture of the season. ) 
“Captain John Smith and Old Virginia.’? Mr 
W. W. Ellsworth, of the Century Company. 
(Iustrated. ) 


As Mr Paul du Chaillu has not yet returned 
from Russia and will probably not return for 
some months, contrary to his original plans, 
his lecture before the society on ‘‘ Russia of 
Today ’’ has been postponed until next winter. 


THE AFTERNOON COURSE OF LECTURES. IN 
CoLUMBIA THEATRE AT 4.20 P. M. 


The general subject of the course is ‘‘ The 
United States.’’ During recent years our 
country has been advancing by leaps and 
bounds, until today it is the most wealthy of 
nations. New York is now practically the 
financial center of the world. American capi- 
talists have within the last four years floated 
loans for Mexico, Germany, England, and 
Russia, and have placed hundreds of millions 
of dollars in investments abroad. The ques- 
tion now in every mind is, What elements in 
the United States have helped us to earn this 
tremendous national wealth and power and 
have won for us commercial supremacy in the 
markets of the world? To partially answer 
this question is the aim of the present series of 
five lectures. In other words, the subject of 
the course is ‘‘The Basis of the Wealth and 
Power of the United States.”’ 

Diagrams and illustrations will be used very 
freely, but statistics and tables will be avoided 
as far as possible. The lecture committee de- 
sire to have the subject treated in a popular 
way rather than from a statistical or technical 
point of view. 


* Please note that this is Saturday. 


1. ‘‘Lands and Waters.’’ The first lecture 
in the series will treat of the unexcelled natu- 
ral features of the United States—our deep, 
secure harbors on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pa- 
cific seaboards, our great rivers which pene- 
trate into the heart of the country, our vast 
fertile plains and lofty mountains, in which 
are buried untold mineral wealth, and our in- 
land lakes, all seemingly ranged in most for- 
tunate conjunction to mutually help each 
other, and the elements and routes of com- 
merce. Lecturer, Mr Cyrus C. Adams, the 
noted writer and lecturer on geographical 
themes. February Io, 1903. 

2. ‘‘The Soil and its Products.’? The sec- 
ond lecture will deal more particularly with 
the land and the products of the land—agri- 
culture. Twenty billions of dollars are in- 
vested in the agricultural interests of the 
United States. We raise annually two billion 
bushels of corn and reap every year a larger 
crop of wheat than the combined wheat crops 
of Argentina and Russia. 

’ In rgor the United States sent nearly one 


, billion dollars’ worth of food—wheat, pork, 


beef, ete.—to the people of Europe. We are 
literally the storehouse of Europe. Lecturer, 
Secretary of Agriculture, Hon. James Wilson. 
February 18, 1903. 

““The Industries.’’ The third lecture 
will treat of the industrial wealth of the United 
States. The value of our manufactures exceed 
that of any other nation. In the manufacture 
of steel we lead the world, and in cotton and 
woolen fabrics we are eclipsed by noone. Our 
railways—two hundred thousand miles of 
them—penetrate to every corner of the country, 
binding the whole nation into one compact 
unit. Our telegraph and telephone systems 
enable men to communicate instantaneously 
though thousands of miles apart. Lecturer, 
Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of Bureau of Statis- 
tics, Treasury Department. February 25, 1903. 

4. ‘‘Mines and Mining.’’ The fourth lecture 
will treat of the mineral wealth of the United 
States. During each of the last three years 
we have produced more coal than England ; 
in 1902 we produced more than one-half of the 
refined petroleum ; more than one-third of the 
world’s production of iron ore in 1902 was ob- 
tained from the United States mines; three- 
fifths of the copper output for the same year 
came from the United States. Lecturer, Mr. 
Charles Kirchoff, editor of The lvon Age. 
March 4, 1903. 

5. ‘‘The Men Who Make the Nation.’”? The 
fifth and last lecture will treat of the people of 
the United States. The mingling of races and 
peculiar conditions have bred a distinct and 


‘original people, who mould the gifts of na- 


ture to their will, The inventive genius of 
the American has enabled him to increase 
many times the resources nature has given 
him. The typical American has not yet been 
bred, but we may prophesy what he will be and 
what place he will holdin the world. Lecturer, 
W J McGee, Li. D., Vice-President National 
Geographic Society. March 11, 1903. 


Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5 P. M. Telephone, Main 471 


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COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE LANDS, Professor R: S, Tatr (Professor of 
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LABORATORY COURSE IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Assistant Principal Carney 
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o ‘DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY, Professor A. P. Brigham (Professor of Geology and Natural 

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_ GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES, Professor BBehaia. 


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|e HOME GEOGRAPHY, Professor C. A. McMurry (Director of Practice Department; 


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sents the first complete account of the ‘catastrophic events of the island‘ oh pe 
misfortunes have so aroused the sympathies of the world, and added a chaps 
to history as interesting as that of the fall of Pompeii and Herculanew Prof. Heil- + 
prin’s early visit to Martinique permitted him to study the scene of the major. disaste 
very soon aftet its happening, while his experiences on the still burning volcano, whi 
' erater he was the first to visit after the tragic eighth of May, and during the great © 
eruption of August 30, of which he was a direct’ observer, WETE such vas the 
narrative describing them one of thrilling interest, 4 % 
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standard work on the subject of which 1t treats for many years in the fu : 
The book, in large octavo, contains three hundred and thirty-five } ‘pages text, 
\ there are nearly forty full-page pei made up in greater part of ‘reproductions ay 
eee taken by. Prof, Heilprin himself. Many of these teveal the lcano in i 
climax of eruption and in rey fgllowang 5 successive ‘stages: No st 
_ record is to be found elsewhere. 


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Vol. XIV MARCH, 1903 No. 3 


CONTENTS 


THE CANADIAN BOUNDARY. BY HON. JOHN W. FOSTER, 
EX-SECRETARY OF STATE .- . i : ’ . . : : 


a 
MOUNTAINS OF UNIMAK ISLAND, ALASKA. BY FERDINAND 
WESTDAHL. -ILLUSTRATED . ° : . 


wv ‘ c 
» OPENING OF THE ALASKAN TERRITORY. BY HARRINGTON 
: EMERSON. ILLUSTRATED . : » : ‘ : : ; . 


THE FORESTS OF CANADA 


WORK IN THE FAR SOUTH 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CUBA 
| THEORIES OF VOLCANIC ACTIO 
¥ GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 
© GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 
| NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
3 Published for the National Geographic Society 

By McClure, Phillips & Co, of New York 

he ‘$2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C,., as Second-class Mail Matter. 


McClure, pllips & ce 
"New York oS oe 


orice: Stet in Charge Bus 
ey oe American Peace ; 


e. “HART MBRRIAM : 


 Chiefof the Biological: Survey, 
cits x ees 


A adhe oF aaa j 
Bast,” ele 


“maRcUS BAKER 


” Chief “of the Weather - Burea 
Sh cee of fea 


Wows mxal.Ve No. 3 


L 


THE CANADIAN BOUNDARY 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGRAPIEMC 
MAGA ZIUNIE, 


MARCH, 1903 


us 


A REVIEW OF THE METHODS BY WHICH THE LINE HAS BEEN ADJUSTED 
AND MARKED 


By Hon. Jonn W. Foster, Ex-SECRETARY OF STATE 


been awakened in the boundary 

question by the Hay-Herbert 
treaty, recently ratified, for the settle- 
ment of the line between Alaska and 
Canada, I have been asked by the edi- 
tors to furnish for the NATIONAL GEO- 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE a review of the 
history of the delimitation of the bound- 
ary line between the United States and 
Canada since the independence of our 
country. 

The treaty of peace of 1783, between 
the United States and Great Britain, 
sought to fix with accuracy the bound- 
aries of their respective possessions. 
These boundaries are laid down in de- 
tail in Article II of the treaty, the 
opening words of which are as follows : 
“And that all disputes which might 
arise in future, on the subject of the 
boundaries of the said United States 
may be prevented, it is hereby agreed 
and declared, that the following are, 
and shall be their boundaries,’’ etc. 

Notwithstanding the good intentions 
of the negotiators, the provisions as to 


Ip view of the interest which has 


the boundary proved to be a source of 
disagreement, and sometimes of violent 
dispute, for nearly acentury. The dis- 
agreements arose mainly from a want 
of correct geographic knowledge on the 
part of the negotiators. For example, 
the initial point on the east was fixed at 
the mouth of St Croix River in the Bay 
of Fundy. But when it was sought to 
establish the boundary line, it was found 
that there was no river in that locality 
popularly known as the St Croix, but 
that there were two considerable rivers 
emptying into the Bay of Fundy, both 
of which had other names than that 
mentioned in the treaty. ‘The United 
States claimed that the most eastern of 
these was the river designated in the 
treaty as the St Croix, and Great 
Britain claimed the western river as the 
treaty boundary. 

Throughout almost the entire length 
of line of contact with Canada laid 
down in the treaty, geographic diffi- 
culties of interpretation have arisen, and 
the inaccuracy of knowledge of the nego- 
tiators is especially conspicuous in their 


86 


provision as to the (then) western termi- 
nation of the line. It was traced through 
the Lake of the Woods to the most 
northwestern point of that lake, ‘‘and 
from thence on a due west course to the 
River Mississippi.’’ They and the cartog- 
raphers of that day supposed that the 
source of the Mississippi was in Ca- 
nadian territory, northwest of the Lake 
of the Woods, whereas, it was a con- 
siderable distance south of that lake. 

It was thought at the time that if 
the disputed question as to the St Croix 
River and the eastern boundary should 
be adjusted, the remainder of the line 
described in the treaty could be amicably 
demarked. It was accordingly agreed 
in the treaty of 1794, negotiated by Mr 
Jay, that this question should be sub- 
mitted to arbitration by a commission 
composed of one American, one English- 
man, and one umpire selected by the 
two. The commission rendered a unani- 
mous award, describing with precision 
which was the river intended by the 
treaty to be the eastern boundary, and 
the award was accepted by both nations. 

This arbitration, however, was far 
from settling the boundary questions. 
Four distinct controversies arose over 
different parts of the divisory line. The 
first was as to the ownership of the 
islands in and near Passamaquoddy Bay, 
a part of the Bay of Fundy. Thesecond 
was as to the line from the source of 
the St Croix River along the Maine- 
New York frontier; the third as to the 
ownership of the islands in the St 
Lawrence River and the Great Lakes ; 
and the fourth as to the line from Lake 
Superior to the northwestern corner of 
the Lake of the Woods. 

Various efforts were made after the 
date of the award as to the St Croix 
River, in 1798, to adjust these questions 
by diplomatic negotiations, especially 
the first two, and a treaty to that end 
was signed but never ratified. In the 
negotiations which resulted in the treaty 
of peace of 1814 these subjects were con- 


Tue Nationa, GeocrapHic MaGAZzINg 


sidered and provision was made for their 
definitive settlement. This treaty was 
signed on the part of the United States 
by John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, 
James A. Bayard, Jonathan Russell, and 
Albert Gallatin. It provided that the 
ownership of the islands in Passama- 
quoddy Bay should be passed upon by a 
commission composed of one American 
and one Englishman, and if they failed 
to agree they should report to their re- 
spective governments the points of dis- 
agreement and the grounds thereof, and 
the governments were to refer the points 
of disagreement to the arbitration of 
some friendly power. ‘The commission- 
ers were able to agree upon all the ques- 
tions submitted to them, and there was 
consequently no arbitration. 

The second question whose adjust- 
ment was provided for in the treaty of 
1814—the line from the source of the 
St Croix River along the Maine-New 
York frontier to the St Lawrence—was 
likewise submitted to two commission- 
ers, under the same terms as to arbitra- 
tion in case of disagreement as just 
stated respecting the islands in Passa- 
maquoddy Bay. ‘This proved to be the 
most irritating, difficult, and tedious of 
all the subjects of dispute between the 
United States and Great Britain. The 
two commissioners first met at Portland, 
Maine, in 1816, and held various other 
sessions at different points in Canada and 
the United States adjacent to the region 
in dispute. They also caused elaborate 
surveys to be madeand charted. After 
five years of vain efforts to reach an 
agreement, they adjourned in 1821, sub- 
mitting to their respective governments 
their divergent views. 

This threw the subject back into di- 
plomacy for the naming of the arbitrator 
and fixing the terms of arbitration. Six 
years elapsed before these were consum- 
mated, and meanwhile the situation was 
further aggravated by the acts of con- 
flicting authorities in the disputed ter- 
ritory. Finally, in 1827, it was agreed 


THe CANADIAN BOUNDARY 


that the matter should be referred to the 
arbitrament of the King of the Nether- 
lands. In 1830 the King rendered his 
award, not accepting the line contended 
for by either party, but recommending 
a compromise boundary or a line of con- 
venience. The American minister at 
The Hague, without instructions from 
Washington, protested against theaward 
on the ground that it was a departure 
from the powers delegated to the arbi- 
trator. ‘The British Government mani- 
fested a disposition to acquiesce in the 
award, but intimated that its acceptance 
would not preclude the two governments 
from modifying the line. President 
Jackson was at first inclined to accept 
it, and it is said that he afterwards ex- 
pressed regret that he had not done so ; 
but he finally submitted the question of 
acceptance to the Senate, and that body 
advised him that it was not obligatory, 
and that new negotiations should be 
opened. 

The British Government consented to 
this latter alternative, with the under- 
standing that meanwhile the boundaries 
actually possessed should be observed 
by the authorities. The negotiations 
dragged along through several years, 
and new surveys were ordered ; but it 
was not possible for the people on the 
border to observe the temporary bound- 
ary understanding. Strife occurred, a 
state of border warfare was created, 
Congress authorized the President to 
call out the militia, and voted $10,000,- 
ooo for public defense. 

An open conflict between the two 
nations seemed imminent; the Com- 
mander-in-Chief of the Army, General 
Scott, was dispatched to the frontier, 
and through his interposition a tempo- 
rary border truce was arranged. 

In 1841 Mr Webster became Secre- 
tary of State. He was well acquainted 
with the controversy and possessed the 
confidence of those most interested—the 
people of New England. Lord Ashbur- 
ton was sent to Washington by the 


87 


British Government as a special pleni- 
potentiary to adjust this long-pending 
and vexatious question. The result of 
their negotiations was the treaty of 1842, 
by which the line in controversy was 
definitely agreed upon and fixed. It 
was, however, a no more advantageous 
settlement for the United States than 
would have been secured by the award 
of the King of the Netherlands, and 
the prolongation of the dispute kept the 
border in a state of turmoil for more 
than ten years, brought the two coun- 
tries to the verge of war, and caused a 
heavy outlay from the national treas- 
ury. In additicn to the military and 
diplomatic expenditures, Congress voted 
to the States of Maine and Massachu- 
setts the sum of $300,000 as compensa- 
tion for the territory claimed by them, 
but conceded to Canada. 

The third question respecting the Ca- 
nadian boundary, for which provision 
was made for settlement by the treaty 
of 1814, was that relating to the line 
extending through the St Lawrence 
River and the Great Lakes, and the 
ownership of many islands along the 
route. ‘The commissioners were to be 
appointed, with provision for arbitra- 
tion in case of disagreement. ‘They 
held their first meeting in 1816, and 
they spent a period of six years in caus- 
ing surveys to be made, in visiting in 
person the entire line, and in confer- 
ences at different cities in the United 
States and Canada, and in the end were 
enabled to reach a harmonious decision 
in 1822. By this decision various isl- 
ands which had been claimed and occu- 
pied by Canadians were transferred to 
the American side of the line, and others 
claimed by Americans were placed on 
the Canadian side. 

The fourth question which was sought 
to be adjusted by the treaty of 1814 was 
the boundary line from Lake Superior 
to the northwestern point of the Lake 
of the Woods. ‘This was entrusted to 
the same commission which had success- 


88 


fully fixed the boundaries of the St Law- 
rence and the Great Lakes. After they 
had concluded their labors under Article 
VI of the treaty of 1814, they began the 
work of delimitation of the frontier to 
the extreme of the Lake of the Woods. 
Their first session in discharge of this 
duty was held in 1822, and the work of 
survey and conference extended until 
1827, when they adjourned szze die, with 
a disagreement upon the entire line from 
St Marys River, between Lakes Huron 
and Superior, to the western limit of the 
Lake of the Woods, and after an ex- 
penditure of more than $200,000. Under 
the treaty this disagreement should have 
been followed by a reference to a friendly 
sovereign as arbitrator ; but the experi- 
ence in the arbitration of the northeast- 
ern boundary did not encourage such a 
course, and the agitation over that sub- 
ject overshadowed the less important 
question at that day of the extreme 
northwestern frontier. It was allowed 
to remain in a state of quiescence until 
the Webster- Ashburton negotiations, 
in 1842. After fifty years of diplomatic 
and arbitral controversy, the two gov- 
ernments had reacheda state of political 
complaisance, and the large tracts of 
territory which had been the subject of 
disagreement on the northwest border 
were, in a spirit of mutual concession, 
divided by the treaty of 1842, and the 
line was marked out upon the maps 
made by the surveys of the commission. 
But even this settlement has not proven 
entirely complete, as some portion of 
the water boundary in the lakes is yet 
in doubt, and it is charged by Canada 
that the United States Land Office has 
surveyed, platted, and sold to Ameri- 
cans a considerable extent of land on 
the Minnesota- Wisconsin frontier which 
really belongs to Canada. ‘The Gov- 
ernment of the Dominion has sought on 
its own account to survey and mark the 
boundary in that region without the 
cooperation of the American authori- 
ties, but our Government has not ac- 
cepted this survey. 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic Macazine 


The uncertainty as to the true bound- 
ary west of the Lake of the Woods, as 
described in the treaty of 1783, was re- 
moved by the treaty of 1818, Article II 
of which provided that from the lake 
the line should be drawn westward 
along the 49th parallel of latitude to the 
“Stony ’’ or Rocky Mountains. 

The line from the Rocky Mountains 
to the Pacific Ocean remained for forty 
years a subject of controversy. It en- 
gaged the attention of successive ad- 
ministrations up to the presidency of 
Mr Polk, various treaty and arbitral 
propositions being advanced only to be 
rejected by one or the other of the two 
nations. Our claim to the whole terri- 
tory on the Pacific coast, from Califor- 
nia to the Russian possessions at 54° 40’, 
was asserted by the Democratic National 
Convention of 1844, and entered largely 
into the campaign which resulted in Mr 
Polk’s election. In his first message to 
Congress he declared our title to this 
region to be ‘‘clear and unquestion- 
able,’’ and he recommended to Congress 
to extend our laws and jurisdiction over 
it. John Quincy Adams, who was recog- 
nized as the highest living American au- 
thority on international questions, held 
with President Polk that our title to the 
territory up to 54° 40’ was complete and 
perfect. 

Congress, acting upon the President’s 
suggestion, passed a joint resolution au- 
thorizing the President to give notice to 
Great Britain of the termination of the 
joint occupation. This brought about 
an energetic protest from Great Britain, 
and the country was awakened to the 
danger of hostilities; but the two na- 
tions found a better way of reconciling 
their differences, and after anxious de- 
liberations Mr Buchanan, the Secretary 
of State, and the British Minister signed 
a convention in 1846 whereby the line 
of the 49th parallel was extended from 
the Rocky Mountains to the waters of 
the Pacific Ocean. _ By this act the vast 
domain now embraced in British Co- 
lumbia was yielded to Great Britain, 


THE CANADIAN BoUNDARY 


although our title to it had been declared 
unquestionable by a national conven- 
tion, by the President in his annual mes- 
sage, by Congress through joint resolu- 
tion, and by some of the highest author- 
ities on international law. 

Still one more step was necessary be- 
fore our chain of title to a fixed and 
unquestioned line from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific Ocean should be complete. 
In describing the Oregon boundary, 
Article I of the treaty of 1846 provided 
that the line should be ‘‘ along the 49th 
parallel of north latitude to the middle 
of the channel which separates the con- 
tinent from Vancouver’s Island ; and 
thence southerly through the middle of 
the said channel, and of Fuca’s Straits, 
to the Pacific Ocean.’’ ‘The treaty had 
hardly been proclaimed before this water 
boundary began to be a matter of dis- 
pute. Between the Gulf of Georgia on 
the east and the Straits of Fuca on the 
west lie a number of islands, and it was 
not clear what was ‘‘the middle of the 
channel’’ among these islands. In this 
state of uncertainty the islands were 
being populated by both Americans and 
Canadians and conflicts of authority 
arose. Efforts were made to reach an 
agreement as to the channel by diplo- 
matic negotiations, but they failed. In 
1856 Congress passed an act authorizing 
a commissioner on the part of the United 
States to act with one to be appointed 
by Great Britain. These commissioners 
met, and after visiting in person the 
region in question were unable to reach 
an agreement. The subject went back 
into diplomacy, and for more than ten 
years it was a frequent topic of discus- 
sion, but no method of settlement could 
be attained. 

In 1859 thesettlers on San Juan Island 
came into conflict, the troops of the two 
countries became involved, and a collis- 
ion seemed imminent. A second time 
the services of General Scott were in- 


89 


voked, and he arranged for a joint and 
peaceful occupation by troops of the two 
nations, but with difficulty were they 
able to prevent conflicts of the civil au- 
thorities. Finally, when the Joint High 
Commission met in Washington in 1871, 
the question of the true channel was sub- 
mitted to the arbitration of the Emperor 
of Germany, and he rendered an award 
in favor of the contention of the United 
States. 


The foregoing review shows that ever 
since the independence of the United 
States the boundary with Canada has 
been a subject of almost constant consid- 
eration between the United States and 
Great Britain, and that every step of the 
frontier line from the initial point on the 
Atlantic coast to the last water channel 
on the Pacific has been a matter of con- 
troversy, and sometimes of such bitter 
contention as even to threaten war. It 
also shows that three courses of ac- 
tion have from time to time been taken 
by the Government of the United States, 
to wit, treaty adjustment, joint and 
equal commissions, and arbitration. In 
the case of the important question of 
the northeastern boundary, resort was 
had successively to all three of these 
methods. It is seen that where adjust- 
ment by treaty has failed, a resort has 
been had to either joint commissions or 
to a foreign and neutral arbitrator. 
‘Treaty adjustment has not always been 
found the most acceptable method in 
popular estimation, as instance the Ore- 
gon boundary treaty. We have suffered 
less, in loss of territory claimed, by the 
action of joint commissions and by arbi- 
tration than by treaty settlement. Our 
public men and the Government have 
not found a strong title to territory a 
bar to the submission of boundary ques- 
tions to the adjudication of a commis- 
sion or an arbitrator. 


MAP OF 
SOUTH EASTERN ALASKA 


Stotute Miles. 


760 


Whi 
DyeaNeass 

ho Sk Bway 
AY Se 
Pyramid 


' 
Gis292 


| 


| Borwrdayy claned by Unityd States eed 


| Q a) gah Cardedan. © Sa ee 


-4C, Mizon—> 


Dixon Entran® 


Popped in the Office of the US. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Treasury Departirrent 


Map Showing Different Alaskan Boundary Lines Claimed by 
United States and Canada 


MOUNTAINS ON UNIMAK ISLAND, ALASKA* 


By FERDINAND WEsTDAHL 


ASSISTANT, U. S. Coast AND GEODETIC SURVEY 


HISHALDIN volcano is the high- 
est mountain on the island,} and it 
vies with Mt St Helens, in Wash- 

ington, in being in outline the most 
regular cone I know of on the Pacific 
coast of the United States. It is an 
active volcano, and the discharges from 
its crater come in puffs like steam at 
first and rising probably 100 feet or 
more above its summit, then turn darker 
in color and stream off horizontally with 
the direction of the wind. In calm 
weather the continuous discharges are 
seen to rise in a column more than 1,000 
feet above it and gradually spread out 


hard over the summit the smoke is 
beaten down and follows the slope on 
the lee side of the peak. The snowy 
mantle of the mountain becomes dark 
after several days of calm weather, then 
clouds envelop it, snow falls and the 
mountain again emerges, clad in pure 
white. { The snow line reached on 
September 21, 1901, down to an esti- 
mated height of 2,800 feet above the 
sea. At about 3,000 feet below the sum- 
mit the regular cone begins to spread 
out, and at4,000 feet there is a projecting 
spur to the westward. Glacier-carved 
canyons begin at about 4,000 feet or 


inadark cloud. Whenthe wind blows more below the summit, and from them 


* This article consists of extracts from a report made in February, 1902, by Assistant Westdahl, 
commanding the Coast Survey Steamer McArthur, while engaged in a survey of that region. 
The extracts refer to certain interesting geographical features of Unimak Island, Alaska, and 
are published here, together with the accompanying photographs, by permission of the Superin- 
tendent of the Coast Survey. Unimak is one of the Aleutian Islands, about which very little is 
known, and therefore the description of the mountains as seen by the writer and recorded by 
the camera is especially interesting. Excerpts are also given from Mr Westdahl’s description 
of the south shore of the island. 

{ ‘‘ The island is uninhabited, and has beenin that condition for the greater part of the present 
century, though it is richer than many other islands of the Aleutian chain in natural means of 
sustaining life. 

““Foxes are quite plentiful here and sea otters frequent the reefs and points, but ever since— 
nearly 100 years ago—almost all the inhabitants of four or five populous villages were massacred 
by the Russian promyshleneks, a superstitious dread seems to prevent the Aleutian from making 
a permanent home at Oonimak (Unimak).’’ Ivan Petroff, p.77, in ‘‘Narratives of Military Ex- 
plorations in Alaska,’’ compiled under the direction of ‘‘ The Committee on Military Affairs ’’ 
of the Senate. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1goo. 

{ Miners bound for Cape Nome and whalers or sealers on their way to Bering Sea as they 
sail through Unimak Pass can see Shishaldin in the distance. When the air is clear the moun- 
tain presents a majestic spectacle, which is described by John Burroughs in the following words : 

“* Before nightfall we passed two more notable volcanic peaks, Isanotski and Shishaldin, both 
of which penetrate the clouds at an altitude of nearly 9,000 feet. These are on Unimak Island 
at the end of the peninsula. Our first glimpse was of a black cone ending in a point far above 
a heavy mass of cloud. It seemed buoyed up there by the clouds. There was nothing visible 
beneath it to indicate the presenceof amountain. Then the clouds blotted it out ; but presently 
the veil was brushed aside again, and before long we saw both mountains from base to summit 
and noted the vast concave lines of Shishaldin that swept down to the sea, and that mark the 
typical volcanic form. 

“The long, graceful curves, so attractive to the eye, repeat on this far-off island the profile of 
Fuji-Yama, the sacred peak of Japan. Those of our party who had seen Shishaldin in previous 
years described it as snow white from base to summit. But when we saw it the upper part, for 
several thousand feet, was dark—doubtless the result of heat, for itis smoking this year ’’ (1899). 
From ‘‘Alaska,’’ vol. 1, p. 90. ‘‘Alaska,’’ the report of the Harriman Alaska Expedition. 
Edited by Dr C. Hart Merriam. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., Igor. 


165" 164° 30’ 


THe NatrionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


2 = 


163°30 
T 


OtterPt 


5027 Ramil 7 


PROMONTORY, 3 
f HILGSISQ 


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Outline Map 


issue at a much lower level streams 
which spread out into broad and shallow 
water-courses (apparently dry at this 
season of the year) over the very gentle 
slopes to the sea. These lower slopes 
seem to be covered with ashes and 
scorize, and when the wind blows clouds 
of dust are driven along withthem. The 
ridge connecting Shishaldin with its 
neighbor to the eastward is probably not 
more than 2,000 feet above the sea. 


ISANOTSKI PEAKS 


Eight and a half nautical miles east- 
northeast from the summit of Shishal- 


163°30 163° 


of Unimak Island 


din are the double peaks of Isanotski 
Mountain. When these peaks are 
closely studied in their 
varying aspects, from 
broad to slender, from 
Ikatan Bayand around 
to the westward of” 
them in Unimak Bay, 
they are seen to be the 
remains of the rim of 
a crater disposed something like this. 
The points determined in the triangu- 
lation are the very highest pinnacles on 
the two remnants of the rim. If this 
theory is right, the mountain may at 
some time have rivaled Shishaldin in 


3 


Mountains on Unimak Istanp, ALASKA 


Beginning of Pinnacles Ridge 


Shishaldin from Anchorage Just West of Pinnacles 


THe NationaL GEeocRAPHIc MaGaZzINE 


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doy, punoy Pysjoursy VI 130 


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Mountains oN Unimak Istanp, ALASKA 


height. Its sides are extremely rugged 
and apparently somewhat concave near 
the summit, as if the mountain had been 
hollow and the accumulation of ice and 
snow about it had crushed its sides in- 
ward. In broaching this theory to Mr 
Applegate, he informed me that an old 
native, recently dead, claimed to have 
seen this mountain crumble. I can 
scarcely believe that such a catastrophe, 
if it has taken place at all, happened at 
so recent a date without attracting the 
attention of some of the Russian traders 
living among the natives. ‘The fact that 
the mountain is still so rugged, that the 
chasms created by the supposed caving 
in are not yet filled by the annual ac- 
cumulations of snow, as on both of its 
neighbors, would seem to favor a com- 
paratively recent date.* 

Five miles northeastward from Iso- 
notski is probably also an extinct vol- 
cano. It isapparently the highest of a 
group of peaks on the northeast end of 
Unimak Island, and has a rounded broad 
summit of snow and ice, through which 
only here and there is seen a projecting 
dark mass of rock even in midsummer. 


POGROMNI VOLCANO 


Pogromni volcano is the highest peak 
in the mass of mountains forming the 
western end of Unimak Island. It does 
not seem to rise from the main ridge, 
however, but from the eastern slope of 
it. A short distance to the eastward of 
it is seen a much lower peak, almost its 


* Less than 200 miles from Shishaldin are two 
volcanoes, known as Old and New Bogoslof. 
The first was born a little more than a century 
ago, rising from the depths of the ocean ; the 
second rose from the deep probably not more 
than 30 yearsago. Old Bogoslof was reported 
in 1832 to have had a height of 1,500 feet, but 
is now only half that height. Both volcanoes 
are constantly disintegrating and wearing 
away. For the remarkable history of the two 
Bogoslofs, see the article on ‘‘ Bogoslof, Our 
Newest Volcano,’’ by Dr C. Hart Merriam in 
““Alaska,’’ the report of the Harriman Alaska 
Expedition, vol. 11, pp. 291-336 ; New York, 
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1gor. 


95 


exact counterpart in appearance, but 
much smaller in dimensions. Pogromni 
is a regular cone in outline, but its sides 
seem more angular and rugged than 
Shishaldin and its rocky ribs and pro- 
jections more numerous and bare. We 
saw no smoke issuing from it at any 
time this season, but we have not seen 
much of the mountain, except while 
making this reconnaissance. I have a 
faint recollection of having seen smoke 
issuing from it in August, 1866. 

Faris * and Westdahl* are two snow- 
covered peaks, apparently rising from 
the main ridge of this part of the island 
to the southward of Pogromni. 


THE SOUTH SHORE OF UNIMAK 


The region to the northward of Cape 
Lazaref consists of isolated mountainous 
elevations, knit together by low level 
land, composed largely of sand. The 
northern slopes, however, were not seen 
from the ship. That this low land ex- 
tends back of the mountains forming 
Cape Lazaref is inferred from what was 
seen by the officer who occupied sev- 
eral triangulation stations on the coast. 
These low lands, like those of the Ika- 
tan Peninsula, are probably covered 
with lakes, as many small streams issue 
through their sandy margins into the 
sea. Cape Lazaref, or the rocky mass 
so named on the chart, consists of three 
high points, which, for convenience, 
might be designated as east, middle, 
and west Cape Lazaref. The east cape 
is highest and broadest toward the sea, 
the middle next in height, but not pro- 
jecting so prominently, and the west 
cape the lowest and sharpest. The east 
cape has a few rocks close under its 
extreme point, one of which is about 30 
feet high and shows prominently from 
the anchorage in Otter Cove. There 


* Named by the Superintendent of the Coast 
and Geodetic Survey, Mr O. H. Tittmann, after 
the officers who first determined their geo- 
graphical position. 


96 


are also some scattered low rocks close 
under the cape all along its seaward face. 
The middle cape is clear of rocks, ex- 
cept a high pinnacle, so close under its 
southeast face as to seem a part of the 
rocky cliff, except from certain direc- 
tions. The west cape, or Lazaref 
proper, has a reef projecting one and 
one-tenth miles southeastward from its 
extreme point, consisting of two high 
rocks, one about 150 feet above the sea 
and one about 70 feet midway between 
them, all showing as pinnacles from the 
southeastward, but broad from all other 
directions, and a multitude of low rocks 
quite close together. This reef forms a 
fairly good protection in westerly winds 
for an anchorage to the eastward be- 
tween the outer high rock and a small 
bunch of rocks lying one and three- 
tenths miles from the eastern face of the 
cape. 

The sandy shore is continued to the 
westward of Cape Lazaref, with some- 
what higher dunes upon it immediately 
back from the beach. Six-tenths of a 
mile from this beach and 1% miles west- 
ward from the cape lies a small rocky 
island about 130 feet above the sea and 
having a smooth, grassy top. At 3% 
miles westward from Cape Lazaref the 
low shore, forming the sea frontage of 
the broad valley or flat back of the 
rocky masses which constitute the cape, 
ceases, and a high spur from Isanotski 
Mountain reaches almost to the sea, 
there being but a narrow fringe of sand 
beach in front of this 214-miles-wide sea 
face of the mountainous projection. 
This sand beach is of comparatively re- 
cent formation. ‘The cliffs of the face 
of this spur show evidences of wave 
action, and are in shape and color sim1- 
lar to the cliffs of Cape Lazaref. From 
aloft on the ship it could be seen that 
this is true also for many miles of the 
east side of this spur bordering on the 
low land. 

At a point eight miles westward from 
Cape Lazaref the sandy beach is broken 


Tue NarronaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


by the toe of a lava flow, probably from 
Shishaldin volcano, about one mile wide 
on its sea face, about 20 to 30 feet in 
height, and consisting of black, very 
jagged, and forbidding-looking rocks. 
Immediately back from the sea face the 
lava is covered with sand and thin veg- 
etation. The sand beach is again 
broken through at 634 miles from this 
lava flow by a low ridge, about 2% 
miles long and in a southwest and north- 
east direction, and rising into three con- 
ical hills, of which the northeasternmost 
is the highest, the middle the lowest, 
and the southwesternmost the only one 
whose base is washed by the sea and 
formed into several columnar rocks, of 
which only the outermost is entirely 
surrounded by water at low tide. 


RUKAVITSIE CAPE 


From Rukavitsie Cape there is an 
unbroken sweep of low sand beach, 
backed by low sandy bluffs and dunes 
for 13 miles, first southwestward, then 
curving gradually until its final direc- 
tion, for two miles before it ends, is 
south. This forms the northwestern 
shore of Unimak Bay. Back from this 
beach from 1% to 3 miles, in the most 
receding part of this bight, are hills ris- 
ing from several hundred to 1,400 feet, 
and farther back seemingly still higher 
ones, all comparatively solitary, from a 
plain 100 to 200 feet above the sea and 
sloping gradually upward to the ridge 
projecting westward from Shishaldin 
Mountain. To the westward of these 
hills, between them and the mountain 
mass forming the southwestern end of 
Unimak Island, is a broad valley, 
drained by a river which empties into 
Unimak Bay at a point of the sand 
beach distant 14 miles from its south- 
western end. Looking into this valley, 
at an estimated distance of three or four 
miles from the beach is seen a lava flow, 
apparently from the southwest toward 
the northeast, reaching more than half 


od 


Mountains oF Unimak IsLtanp, ALASKA 


Shishaldin Isanotski Round Top 


View from West Side of Otter Cove 


Tue NationaL GEocRAPHic MaGAZzINE 


98 


Ssvq YVUINY Wo1y syvag [YepisoM pur ‘stiey ‘tamo01s0g JO MTA 


Aeod [Wepyse SIIB tm0180g 


Mountains oF UnimMak JsLanp, ALASKA 


way across the valley, with the water 
making a great bend around the foot of 
it. Examined through a telescope, it 
seems to consist of a jungle of sharp- 
cornered rocks, like gigantic pieces of 
broken glass, of a dull gray color, slop- 
ing very gradually toward the north- 
east. 

The sand beach ends against the table- 
land about 350 feet high, projecting in 
an east-southwest direction from the 
mountain mass behind it, and forming 
at its extremity a small semicircular 
cove not quite half a mile across and 
open toward the north. We noticed 
two small houses in the cove, apparently 
close under the bluff, and also a small 
sloop, hauled out of the water beyond 
the reach of the surf, near them. ‘There 


9 


are some rocks close under the extremity 
of the point. Applegate has anchorages 
marked on either side of this point, I 
believe, and I have been informed that 
vessels have anchored in both places. 
The cove to the northward of the point 
is much more protected, and I have 
learned from a shipmaster well known 
to me that he has anchored there and 
had protection from southerly winds, 
but not from the swell which rolls around 
the point. The bottom is sandy and 
shoaling toward the beach very grad- 
ually. At the southern end of the 
broader bight, to the southward of the 
point, there is a high table-land, 540 feet 
above the sea, and with an ocean face 
of one mile in length in an approximate 
northwest and southeast direction. 


OLEAN UNG OM Gai ACASKAN LERRITORY- 


By Harrincron EMERSON 


HE West, the old West of bound- 
less natural resources and path- 
less solitude, to yield homes for 
millions yet unborn, is not exhausted. 
Governments and peoples do not realize 
it, but it lies there to reward the pioneer 
with greater and quicker returns than 
have been given by any part of western 
Europe or of temperate North America. 
The new and unsubdued West today is 
Alaska, almost to a mile one-half larger 
than the thirteen original American col- 
onies, very nearly twice the size of Cali- 
fornia, Oregon,and Washington, as large 
as Great Britain, Denmark, Sweden, 
Norway, and the German Empire, and 
with a better climate and greater natural 
resources than an equal area of northern 
Europe supporting 10,000,000 inhab- 
itants. 
The Yukon, the fourth largest river 


in the world, navigable for more than 
2,000 miles above its mouth and run- 
ning in a great semicircle from south- 
eastern to northwestern Alaska, forms 
anatural highway. Allthis was known 
long ago, but it was not known that the 
interior contained thousands of square 
miles of farming lands and almost limit- 
less areas of the richest mineral lands in 
the world. Itisin this unsubdued coun- 
try that thousands of miles of railroad 
must be built, that great areas will open 
for settlement, absorbing and keeping 
busy 2,000,000 workers as fast as they 
choose to go. 

Had it not been for the natural sum- 
mer highway of the Yukon, there never 
could have been such a camp as Dawson. 
The head passes of the Yukon and the 
river itself were at that time the only 
possible direct road to the Klondike. 


* This article was published in The Engineering Magazine for February, 1903, and is re- 
printed here in somewhat curtailed form by courtesy of the editors of that magazine. 


100 Tue Narronat GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


Courtesy of The Engineering Magazine 


Winter Freighting Overland, Dawson, Yukon Territory 


Courtesy of The Engineering Magazine 


Landing Through the Surf at Nome 


OPENING OF THE ALASKAN ‘TERRITORY 


Under such conditions the pack horse 
adds little to the solution of the problem. 
He cannot both work and forage. Men 
““packers’’ were at one time paid as 
high as 60 cents a pound for packing 
over the Chilcoot Pass, but the rate had 
been 10 cents. Over the White Pass, 
where horses could be used, the rates 
were never lower than 10 cents, and 
often 20 cents. Horse trains were main- 
tained only by a constant fresh supply 
of horses from the south, few animals 
surviving more than two or three trips. 
Of 3,800 horses taken north in 1897, 
all but 30 died on the trail. To cheapen 
transportation a wagon road was hastily 
built in 1898 and a toll levied of 2 cents 
a pound. In 1899 this was succeeded 
by a railroad, and freight rates have 
fallen from the original maximum of 60 
cents a pound for 40 miles, from water 
to water, to $3.75 to $5.50 per hundred 
pounds for the 2,500 miles from San 
Francisco or Puget Sound to Dawson. 
It is 112 miles by rail from tide water 
over the 2,800-foot pass to White Horse, 
below the dangerous.rapids of the upper 
river, and to Dawson by the river it is 
451 miles further. The fare from Skag- 
way is $70, and the fastest time made, 
32 hours. 

In the year 1901 the White Pass Rail- 
road carried 33,471 tons of freight and 
16,472 passengers, receiving from pas- 
senger traffic $252,932.71, and from 
freight, express, mail, and telegrams, 
$1,505,132.64, an average for freight of 
$43 a ton for 112 miles. Operating ex- 
penses, naturally heavy, were 42.42 per 
cent of the receipts. The first cost of 
this road, including many expensive 
franchises and the buying up of possible 
rivals, was $4,250,000, and in the first 
season its gross receipts were officially 
reported to exceed $4,000,000, with 
operating expenses of about $1,000,000. 
The actual facts as to this highway into 
Alaska and the Yukon Valley are given 
to show the great difficulties and ex- 
pense of transportation in opening up a 


LOl 


new country, where in spite of a rapid 
fall in rates after the first season, a 
successful transportation enterprise will 
usually pay for itself with one year’s 
earnings. 

It causes regret to Americans that 
this brilliant undertaking, conceived and 
executed by American engineers, could 
find no American backers—that Lon- 
don, unhampered by the timidity which 
afflicts New York in presence of a new 
region, boldly and promptly investi- 
gated, financed, and carried it through. 
The headquarters of the road have been 
moved from the United States to Van- 
couver, and the great bulk of the freight 
is no longer from the United States, 
but almost wholly from Canada. 

Besides having enjoyed thus far the 
monopoly of the shortest entrance to the 
Yukon Valley, the White Pass will re- 
main the only approach to the rich Atlin 
country, a lake region just beyond the 
coast range, whichis slowly but surely 
developing, producing this last season 
nearly $1,000,000 in gold. Atlin and 
the Upper Yukon country will always 
be exclusively tributary to this road. 
As there is no other pass through which 
aroad can be built, for an indefinite 
period the revenues of the White Pass 
route may be counted on to increase, but 
of the rich Klondike region with Daw- 
son as its center it is likely very soon to 
be dispossessed. From the Stewart 
River 72 miles above Dawson to Nulato 
below the Koyukuk River, a distance of 
just a thousand miles, there are nearer 
and better seaports thanSkagway. The 
best of these is the bay of Valdes, ro 
miles long and 3 wide, as protected and 
beautiful as a Swiss lake, and nearest 
of all salt-water harbors to Dawson. 

In 1900 and r901 Major Abercrombie 
built a government trans-Alaskan mili- 
tary trail from Valdes into the Copper 
River Vailey. Last winter over this road 
the freight rate to Copper Center, 103 
miles, was 48 cents by dog team ; dur- 
ing the summer by pack horse it rose to 


102 


$1.50 per pound, as mud is much more 
difficult traveling than snow and ice. 
In October, rgoo, the mail schedule from 
Valdes to the American Yukon was re- 
duced totwenty days,and in April, 1gor, 
the trip was made by the mail carriers 
in thirteen days. Beginning the first of 
January, 1903, the mail contractors put 
on a weekly stage, four trips each way 
monthly between Valdes and Dawson. 
This winter, for the first time, it will be 
possible for American mails and Ameri- 


Tue NarionaL GrocrAaPHic MAGAZINE 


start bonanza wheat farms, but because 
the proximity of the great mining camps 
will give them a very high return for 
all they can raise. Fresh milk and 
butter, eggs, and poultry, fresh beef 
and mutton, hay and oats for animals, 
fresh vegetables for men, command 
fancy prices. John F. Rice, quarter- 
master’s clerk, in his official report to 
Major Abercrombie, states that the city 
of Eagle is second only to Dawson in 
importance ; that the route from Eagle 


can passengers to go to the American 
Yukon as quickly and as cheaply as over 
the Canadian route. 

Five large ocean steamers, besides 
many sailing vessels, run each month 
between Puget Sound and Valdes, 
which is also connected by telegraph 
line with Eagle, Dawson, and the out- 
side world. The increase of travel by 
this route is due to the discovery that 
the Copper River valley promises to be 
a great agricultural region, capable of 
affording homes to thousands of settlers, 
who will go there not because they can 


Courtesy of The Engineering Magazine 


Hauling the United States Mail with Reindeer, Nome, Alaska 


to Valdes presents no such obstacles as 
routes through the Rocky Mountains 
or Cascades; that there isan abundance 
of grass from May until October; that 
the natural food resources of central 
Alaska are caribou, moose, brown and 
black bear, mountain goat, geese, duck, 
grouse, salmon, pickerel, perch, bass, 
whitefish, trout, pike, and grayling. 

It is, however, not the agricultural 
resources that will immediately attract 
the largest influx of population and 
capital. About 140 miles from Valdes, 
in the Chitina Valley, are very great 


OPENING 


Copyrighf, 1898, E. A. Hegg 


OF THE ALASKAN TERRITORY 


103 


Courtesy of The Engineering Magazine 


Winter Freighting on the Ice, Lake Linderman 


copper deposits, which during the last 
season have been visited by many ex- 
perts. Some of the ores run 85 per 
cent copper, and there are many thou- 
sand tons in sight assaying 16 per cent. 
A great mountain slide has occurred in 
this region, revealing, it is claimed, as 
much as 40,000,000 tons of high-grade 
copper ores. Valdes Bay and the lower 
pass north of it are the American gate- 
ways to the Yukon Valley, and already 
a railroad has been surveyed and par- 
tially graded to the interior, for the 
copper, which, though it can be quarried 
like the iron ores of Lake Superior, 
without a railroad will remain worth- 
less. The railroad itself is assured an 
unlimited tonnage. It is the short- 
est line to Dawson and the Yukon 
Valley, and, what is of more importance, 
it can carry supplies delivered at Valdes 
from sailing vessels or deep-draft ocean 
steamers in all the months of the year, 
with only one break of bulk at Valdes, 
and also reach the deep navigable Yukon 
and the Koyukuk a month earlier than 


by the Yukon mouth, which is closed by 
Bering Sea ice until July1. Asshown 
in the history of the White Pass Rail- 
road, the ingoing traffic would be in 
itself sufficient to warrant a railroad, but 
from Dawson the only export is gold, 
about 70 tons a year, while this road 
will not only carry all the United States 
Government troops and supplies, for 
which many hundred thousand dollars 
are spent, but it will have the unlimited 
outbound tonnage of high-grade copper 
ores, which, with a freight rate of $2 a 
ton from Valdes to the smelters of Puget 
Sound, will scarcely be treated in the 
interior. 

It is not too much to expect that im- 
provement in transportation facilities 
alone will convert central Alaska into 
as densely a populated and prosperous a 
région as Colorado, as the Black Hills of 
South Dakota, as the rich mining region 
of British Columbia. 

There is another part of Alaska wait- 
ing for transportation facilities. It is 
not so dazzling as the Klondike nor as 


Nationa, GrocrAaPHic MAGAZINE 


Courtesy of The Engineering Magazine 


Freight Boat on the Niukluk River—Carries 7 Tons 


The horse tows it upstream, riding down in the boat 


vast as central Alaska, but it is perhaps 
richer than either of them. 

Far to the northwest lies the Seward 
Peninsula, suggesting on the map an 
animal’s head snarling across Bering 
Strait at the nearby Siberia. By rivers 
and sea itis almost wholly separated 
from the mainland, and though compris- 
ing but 3 per cent of the area of Alaska, 
or 20,000 square miles in 600,000, it has 
yielded for the last three years nearly 75 
per cent of the gold output, in spite of 
the increasing yield of the great quartz 
mines of the southeast, near Juneau. 

Although the most distant region of 
North America, 2,700 statute miles from 
Puget Sound, it owes the rapid explora- 
tion and development of its coast to the 
fact that an all-water route was open to 
its shores, and that freight still costirfg 
a minimum of $70 a ton into Dawson is 
being landed on the Nome beach for $10 
aton. Passenger rates, higher in the 
first rush, have fallen to $40 and $50 
first class and $20 or $25 steerage. 


Owing to the freedom from hardships, 
as well as the low coast and shortness 
of time required, impelled by stories that 
were indeed true of rich golden beaches, 
about 25,000 people and their chattels 
landed on the low sandy spit at Nome 
and were left to the mercy of surf and 
storm. The Eskimo, very numerous 
along this coast, who have none of the 
aloofness of the Indian, came in their 
umiaks, big skin boats that can carry 
fifty people and all their belongings, and 
made camp with the whites; but the 
Eskimo, needing no barometer, intui- 
tively flee several days before a storm. 
Not so the whites, who every year have 
been caught. InSeptember, 1900, when 
there were more than 12,000 campers 
along the beach, the surf rolled in, 
wrecked much of the shipping in the 
offing,'and destroyed about $1,500,000 
of miscellaneous property on the beach, 
and every year since, similar if not so 
severe disasters have occurred. Drift- 
wood, piled high landwards from Nome, 


OPENING OF THE ALASKAN TERRITORY 


shows that on occasion the sea sweeps 
the whole site of the present city. 

This is not the only danger. An- 
other is fire. The streets are narrow, 
and the houses—flimsy wooden struct- 
ures—stand in serried rows. Because 
of the cold, there are hot fires. every- 
where. There are few brick chimneys, 
and in winter there is no water supply. 
If a serious fire should occur in mid- 
winter, destroying shelter, food, and 
fuel, no relief could reach the stricken 
people. The nearest open port on the 
Pacific is 500 miles tothe southeast. It 
is 1,711 miles from Dawson, with no 
roads to either place. Bering Sea is in 
the same latitude as the Baltic, and, like 
the Baltic, is shallow and brackish, 
owing to the many rivers which empty 
fresh water and silt into it. In winter 
surface ice readily forms, extending 
300 to 400 miles south of Nome, effect- 
ually isolating the city from November 
I until June 1. 

Thisis unendurable, and three projects 
are under consideration to effect com- 
munication throughout the whole year. 
The simplest is to maintain in Bering 
Sea an ice-breaker of the Admiral Ermak 
type, an easy task, as the ice is not as 
thick and solid in Bering Sea as in the 
northern Russian ports. ‘The second 
project is to build a railroad from Cook 
Inlet or Prince William Sound on open 
Pacific waters to Nome by way of St 
Michael. ‘The third plan is to connect 
Nome by railroad with the lower Yukon 
River, and ultimately effect a junction 
with the railroad from Valdes to Eagle. 
To complete this project would require 
about goo miles of track. 

The gold yield of the Nome region 
has hitherto come from the sea beaches 
and from gulches and beaches at most 
to miles from water transportation. 
Even 10 miles has proved almost pro- 
hibitive. In winter the placers are not 
worked and the camps are closed. No 
advantage can therefore be taken of the 
smooth snow and ice roads. Insummer 


105 


the tundra is two or three feet of mud, 
with a bottom of frozen ground. ‘The 
services of teams are worth from $20 
to $40 a day, and it takes a whole day 
to haul 1,500 pounds 1o miles. ‘The 
lowest rate is three times as much as 
the minimum from Puget Sound to 
Nome, 2,700 miles, and twice as much 
as the rate from San Francisco or Puget 
Sound to Dawson. So prohibitive were 
the natural conditions that Mr Chas D. 
Lane, of the Wild Goose Company, 
considered it wise economy to devote 
go per cent of the output of certain 
placer claims to a transportation sys- 
tem, thus reducing cost of exploitation 
for all future output to 10 per cent, 
rather than indefinitely to spend 90 
per cent of the yield for transportation 
alone. 

The Wild Goose Railroad, 7 miles 
long from Nome to Anvil Creek, earned 
its total first cost within thirty days of 
its opening and shows increasing earn- 
ingseach year. From Council City, on 
the Niukluk River about 90 miles from 
Nome, Mr Lane has built a second 
road, also 7 miles long, connecting 
Council with Ophir Creek, and this road 
has also paid for itself in one season. 
Council is 55 miles from the nearest 
seaport, up a shallow, winding river. 
That part of the Seward Peninsula on 
which Nome is located, a part about 
5,000 miles in area, was, geologically 
speaking, very recently an island. A 
deep indentation of the ocean runs 50 
miles inland from Port Clarence, north- 
west of Nome, and Golofnin Bay, about 
70 miles east of Nome, also extends 
many. miles inland. These two bays 
are joined by a deep valley, so that 60 
miles north and inland from Nome it is 
possible with one short portage to go 
from sea to sea. Council City lies in 
this depression, Ophir Creek and in- 
numerable other rich creeks emptying 
into it from both sides. Gold has been 
found in paying quantities on nearly all 
of them, but it is impossible yet to de- 


106 


velop them, owing solely to the cost of 
transportation. 

Owing to the absence of transportation 
facilities, nothing is being done further 
inland, but a railroad from the nearest 
port to the interior, a narrow-gauge 
railroad, should pay for its cost each 
season for many years to come. ‘There 
are no heavy grades, no mountain work, 
and for many miles it runs through a 
heavily timbered country, but west of 
Council there is no timber, and both 
lumber and fuel are exceedingly high 
in price. There is not only gold here, 
but also what gives promise of being 
one of the richest lead and silver dis- 
tricts in the world. Seventy miles in- 
land from the ocean, up the Fish River 
and its tributary, Omilak Creek, less 
than 50 miles by railroad survey, silver 
and lead ore has for 18 years past been 
quarried out, the ore running from 70 
per cent to 80 per cent lead and about 
120 ounces of silver to the ton. Much 
ore lies sacked on the dump, but in 
small quantities of several hundred tons 
it costs more to move it than it is worth, 
although its smelting value exceeds $100 
aton. From Golofnin Bay there is a 
freight rate of $3 a ton to the Tacoma 
smelter, but the wagon haul to the river 
and the transportation down the river 
is as yet prohibitive. This one quarry, 
if properly equipped and opened, should 
yield a minimum of 10,000 tons a year. 


Tue NatTionaL GrocGRAaPHIc MAGAZINE 


For Pacific Coast maritime evolution 
Alaska has been of inestimable advan- 
tage. The Dawson rush of 1897 and 
1898 impressed every available boat, and 
when it was over left well established 
lines with almost daily service. ‘The 
Nome rush of 1900 again caused a de- 
mand for all available craft, and in 
summer the regular service keeps a 
fleet of more than a dozen ocean steamers 
busy. The Valdes developments even 
now justify weekly sailings. All the 
worn-out dilapidated craft of American 
register drift into these runs, and as 
the Alaskan coast is for the most part 
uncharted, unbuoyed, and unlighted, 
many of them find their graves in north- 
ern waters. 

The export trade from Alaska for four 
months ending October 31, 1902, ex- 
ceeded $20,000,000, and was equal to 
that from Hawaii (for ten months end- 
ing the same date), was three times 
that of the Philippines, and more than 
double that of Porto Rico. The island 
dependencies of the United States are 
densely populated, small in area, and 
fairly well developed. They are in the 
tropics, and unfit for white men and 
their families. Alaska needs 10,000 
miles of railroad, 20,000 miles of wagon 
roads and telephone lines, and can, as 
fast as transportation is available, give 
homes and employment to a population 
of 10,000,000. 


Wiss, WORMS Ole CAIN AIDA 


outside the Dominion. Hence 
the statements contained in a recent re- 
port from U.S. Consul HenryS. Culver, 
at London,* Ontario, about the Cana- 


HE immense forest resources of 
Canadaare not generally realized 


*“Advance Sheets of Consular Reports,”’ 
January 31, 1903 (No. 1559). 


dian forests are specially striking. The 
following is abstracted from the report : 


There are three great timber belts in 
the Dominion : The northern or spruce 
belt, the southern or commercial belt— 
both east of the Rocky Mountains—and 
the British Columbia belt, west of the 
Rocky Mountains. These belts do not 


Tue Forests oF CANADA 


include, however, the forests of the 
maritime provinces, which are exten- 
sive and valuable, covering about one- 
tenth of the area of Ontario and Quebec, 
or the forests of New Brunswick and 
Nova Scotia, which may be compared 
in a general way to those of Maine. 


FORESTS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA 


The western or British Columbia belt 
is far superior to either of the eastern 
areas, for the reason that the climate, 
tempered as it is by the warm waters 
of the Pacific Ocean, promotes a more 
perfect growth and development of the 
different species. Here is found not 
only the valuable red fir or Oregon 
pine, generally distributed through- 
out the entire province along the coast 
and on the mountains, but also the 
red cedar, the western spruce, the 
yellow cedar, the hemlock, the bal- 
sam fir, the western white pine, the 
western yellow pine, the maple, and the 
western oak in such quantities as to 
make this the most valuable timber belt 
on the North American continent. This 
belt extends from the forty-ninth par- 
allel north to the sixtieth parallel, a 
distance of some 770 miles, and is from 
200 to 300 miles wide. The best tim- 
ber does not extend to the extreme 
north. That portion is covered with 
black and white spruce, and constitutes 
a very extensive pulp-wood range. 

But this region, because of its great 
distance from the markets in the East 
and the lack of cheap transportation, 
will remain comparatively in its prime- 
val state until the eastern forests are 
nearly exhausted or until better trans- 
port facilities are afforded. 


THE NORTHERN FORESTS 


The northern belt is perhaps greater 
in extent than all the other timber belts 
and reserves of Canadacombined. Ac- 
cording to the best authority, it extends 
from the eastern coast of Labrador north 


107 


of the fiftieth parallel in a northwest- 
erly direction to Alaska, a distance of 
some 3,000 miles, with an average width 
of perhaps 500 miles. This vast strip 
of timber land, if placed upon the terri- 
tory of the United States, would extend 
from Maine to California and from the 
southern shore of Lake Erie to the 
northern boundary line of Georgia. It 
is known as the spruce forest of the 
Dominion, the great bulk of the timber 
being of that species, black and white, 
the other important trees being larch 
and poplar. 

Although this belt has been but par- 
tially explored, it is claimed that many 
of the trees in the southern portion are 
of a lumber-producing size, but the 
greater portion is fit only for pulp. 


When it is considered that spruce is 
distributed in vast quantities through 
all the forests of Canada, and that an 
almost incalculable amount will be pro- 
duced in this great northern belt, it is 
hardly exaggeration to say that the Do- 
minion possesses an inexhaustible sup- 
ply of pulp wood. 

Dr Robert Bell, Director of the Geo- 
logical Survey of Canada, says of the 
area of the forests : 

“The area of our northern forests 
may be reckoned as forty-four times as 
great as that of England. Any one of 
these forty-four parts will produce wood 
enough to supply the ordinary demands 
of the present population of Canada— 
that is, 5,000,000 people could get what 
is required for mining, fuel, etc., by 
taking the timber from a space the size 
of England—and would be able to al- 
low the other forty-three equal parts to 
be in reserve or used for export.”’ 

The railway being built from Sault 
Ste. Marie to Hudson Bay will make 
available the timber growing around the 
bay and along the line of the road, and 
may possibly provide a more accessible 
field of pulp wood than can be obtained 
in any other way for the rapidly grow- 
ing industries of the Soo. 


108 


THE SOUTHERN BELT 


The southern or commercial timber 
belt spreads over a very wide territory. 
It comprises that portion of Ontario and 
Quebee lying between the forty-fifth 
and fiftieth parallels of latitude and 
bounded on the east by the St Lawrence 
River and on the west by the Great 
Lakes and Manitoba. Great interest 
centers in this great timber region by 
reason Of its proximity to the manu- 
facturing centers of the United States 
and because it contains the most valu- 
able timber for lumber east of the Rocky 
Mountains. 

It is not, however, a compact and un- 
broken belt of first-class timber.  Cli- 
matic conditions seriously interfere with 
the development and growth of some of 
the best species of timber that inhabit 
this region, for none of the best ones 
extend farther north than the water- 
shed between Hudson Bay and the Great 
Lakes, approximately the fiftieth paral- 
lel of latitude, and many of them find 
their northern limit far south of this 
parallel. The composition and extent 
of this timber belt can be better under- 
stood by taking a map of the Dominion 
and tracing its boundaries and noting 
the northern limit of the most valuable 
species. [The forty-fifth parallel cuts 
out entirely one very valuable species— 
the black walnut—whose northern limit 
of growth is the latitude of the city of 
Toronto, while a few miles north of this 
parallel is the northern limit of red cedar 
and white oak. A line drawn from the 
city of Quebec to Sault Ste. Marie will 
designate the northern limit of beech, 
while a line drawn from the northern part 
of New Brunswick to the north shore 
of Lake Superior will mark the northern 
boundary of sugar hard maple. ‘Two 
other species which have their northern 
limit within this belt are elm and birch. 


Tue NationaL GeocraeHic MAGAZINE 


The king of the northern forests is 
white pine, which has its northren limit, 
as have also white cedar and red pine, 
at this fiftieth parallel of latitude. This 
region is now virtually its only home in 
the Dominion of Canada. It was at one 
time supposed that it had a very exten- 
sive northern range, but Dr Bell states 
that its distribution is comparatively 
southern, very little being found north 
of the fiftieth parallel. 

This belt would furnish an enormous 
supply of excellent timber but for the 
destruction wrought by forest fires. 

Dr Bell calculates that about one- 
third of this territory may be considered 
as under a second growth up to about 
IO years of age, one-third as interme- 
diate, and one-third including trees of 
I0O years or more, and this applies 
doubtless to all the forest areas of Can- 
ada ; to this particular belt, which les 
at the very doors of the great manufact- 
uring establishments of the United 
States, and is the one foreign timber 
region upon which we rely, the avail- 
able supply of first-quality timber is 
alarmingly limited. 

‘The Canadian forests have never been 
called upon to pay the enormous tribute 
to multiplying industries that our for- 
ests have ; but they have been decimated 
by the speculative lumberman and the 
improvident settler, and ravaged by fire 
until those which are most accessible 
bear little resemblance to their primeval 
state. 

But it is not too late for the Canadian 
people to preserve what is left of their 
great timber reserves, and by a vigorous 
and judicious system of reforestation, 
they may be able to meet every demand 
for their best timber for a long time to 
come. They are awake to the respon- 
sibility, and are taking measures to pre- 
serve what is left and to reforest the 
waste places. 


WiOKIKG UN “iH Ey EARS SOU rH 


HERE are four expeditions at 

| present exploring the far south 

whose unknown area is greater 

than twice Europe. The outline map 

shows the base of operations of three of 

the parties—the English, the German, 

and the Scottish; the fourth party, the 

Swedish, have their base near the Falk- 
land Islands. 

Nothing has now been heard from the 
German expedition for more than a 
year. They are amply equipped and 
provisioned and did not expect to send 
word of their doings before June, 1904. 


An auxiliary vessel, the Morning, re- 
cently entered the Antarctic regions, 
carrying additional equipment for the 
British expedition, which is exploring 
south of New Zealand. 

The Scottish expedition, under the 
command of W. S. Bruce and on board 
the Scotia, sailed from the Falkland 
Islands for the far south in January, 
1903. ‘The other three expeditions have 
had a year’s start of the Scottish expe- 
dition, but the latter has an able leader 
and staff, and will doubtless do equally 
important work. 


Scottish 


©) Station 


Wedde aN 
Feb ra 


REDITION 


PROPOSED ROU 
SCOTTISH 


Courtesy of The Geographical Journal 


THEORIES OF VOLCANIC ACTION 


N anaddress recently before the Swiss 
Society of Natural Sciences, M. A. 
Rossel presented certain considerations 
regarding volcanic action based on ex- 
periments with the electric furnace. 
The Literary Digest gives the following 
summary of the address: 

“A quartz crystal heated in the elec- 
tric furnace at the relatively low tem- 
perature produced by 70 volts and 400 
to 500 ampéres is completely volatil- 
ized ; it is even easy to vaporize lime, 
magnesia, and in general all compounds 
containing oxygen, such as silicates, 
carbonates, etc. 

““ Nevertheless, these may undergo a 
process of reduction ; when we heat in 
the electric furnace silica with alumina, 
carbon, iron, etc., new refractory sub- 
stances are formed, which remain in the 
furnace while the oxygen is disengaged 
in the gaseousstate. These stable com- 
pounds are carbids, silicids, phosphids, 
etc., which resist high temperature, 
but are all decomposable by water. 

“Tf we apply this reaction to the 
formation of the earth by cooling, we 
must admit that the first minerals pro- 
duced were compoundsofelements . . . 
free from oxygen. ‘These minerals re- 
mained in this condition, forming the 
first terrestrial stratum, until circum- 
stances permitted the formation of water 
or water vapor ; as soon as they came 
in contact with this, a very active re- 
action must have taken place, whose 
result was the formation of oxids— 
lime, alumina, magnesia, etc., together 
with inflammable gases, whose com- 
bustion then gave rise to other re- 
actions. ... 

“There were thus formed, on the one 
hand, earthy metallic oxids, and, on 
the other, the oxids that form the acids 
of the important earths—silicic and 
carbonic acids. The explanation of the 
formation of the silicates and carbonates 
is hence not far to seek. 


‘“ Now we may apply what precedes 
to the explanation of certain volcanic 

henomena. 

‘“The earth cools progressively. This 
cooling gives rise to folds in the terres- 
trial crust, and fissures may result. 
Through these fissures water is intro- 
duced and minerals containing water of 
hydration may penetrate to a great 
depth. Then very energetic chemical 
reactions take place, producing gases 
that will burn in air, and also metallic 
oxids. These reactions may cause earth- 
quakes and volcanic eruptions. 

‘“Tn any case, M. Rossel regards it 
as certain that if the earth has reached 
its present state by progressive cooling, 
and if the interior of the globe is now 
at a sufficiently high temperature to 
volatilize oxygenated bodies, oxygen 
should be entirely wanting at these 
depths. The oxygen will all be found 
at the surface of the globe, in the at- 
mosphere and in combination in water 
and oxygenated minerals, which are all 
decomposed volcanic ashes. It would 
then seem inexact to say that the globe 
is composed of about four-fifths oxygen 
and one-fifth other elements. Besides, 
this hypothesis is not in harmony with 
what is known of the earth’s specific 
gravity.” 


STANISLAS MEUNIER con- 

e tributesan interesting and sug- 
gestive paper on the theory of volcanic 
outbursts to the Revue Scientifique of Au- 
gust 2, of which this abstract is pub- 
lished in Zhe Geographical Journal for 
December, 1902, Heassumes that from 
the surface down to a certain limited 
depth, determined by the temperature, 
all rocks are saturated with water, while 
beyond that depth the heat is too great 
for water to penetrate. A fracture of 
the nature of a reversed fault, caused 
by thrusting, would place a hot, dry 
layer below the critical level in contact 


VOLCANIC 


with a moist layer above it, with the 
result that the rocks along a part of the 
line of contact would have their melting 
point lowered, and would take up water 
in combination, tending to increase in 
bulk, and forming a mass having many 
of the properties of ordinary lavas. ‘The 
swelling of the mass at a line of weak- 
ness would tend to fracture the super- 
incumbent rocks. ‘The relief of press- 
ure so obtained would set free. large 
quantities of the occluded gases and 
vapors, and these would bring with 
them rock materials in a solid and 
molten state. A close analogy occurs 
in the case of a bottle of soda water 
when the cork is taken out, the sudden 
liberation of the gas in solution driving 
part of the water out of the bottle. 
Thus volcanic lava, so far from being a 
material distributed as a continuous 
layer in all parts of the earth, is a spe- 
cial product of regions which have just 
undergone profound geological changes, 
and the significance of this in relation 


ERUPTIONS IL! 


to the geographical distribution of act- 
ive volcanoes is very great. Again, it 
becomes evident that the depths at 
which centers of activity—7. e., ‘‘ pock- 
ets’’ of swelling or expanding mate- 
rial—are developed may vary consider- 
ably, and we are able to account for the 
fact that volcanoes near one another 
may be quite independent, while others, 
more distant, may act sympathetically. 
Finally, lavas may originate in rocks of 
widely different constitution—from crys- 
talline rocks to the carboniferous clays 
which produce anorthite lavas. The 
indispensable factor, the tendency to 
increase in volume, may of course be 
supplied by other substances than water, 
as, for example, by chlorides, like 
masses of rock-salt, which would ex- 
plain the emanations from exceptional 
volcanoes, like those of Hawaii, where 
the place of water vapor is taken by 
hydrochloric acid or by sulphates or 
combustible carbon compounds. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


THE FOUNDER OF THE SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTION 


ORD has been received that James 
Smithson, the founder of the 
Smithsonian Institution, must be turned 
out of his grave in Genoa, Italy, tomake 
room for a quarry. 

Smithson died at Genoa in 1829, and 
was buried in a small and isolated British 
cemetery on the heights of San Benigno. 
The cemetery is under the care of the 
British consul at Genoa, but the land 
belongs to the Italian Government. 
Near by is a quarry, from which the city 
gets the stone for its works. Much 
more stone is now needed for the exten- 
sive harbor improvements which have 
been begun, and hence all the graves in 
the cemetery must be removed. 


Smithson left his entire estate of over 
half a million dollars to ‘‘the United 
States of America to found at Washing- 
ton, under the name of the Smithsonian 
Institution, an establishment for the in- 
crease and diffusion of knowledge among 
men.”’ 


The princely legacy came asa surprise 
to the United States. He had never vis- 
ited this country, nor had he any Amer- 
ican friends or, as far as we know, any 
correspondents across the ocean. His 
plan was unique and has given the 
United States a scientific institution such 
as no other nation in the world pos- 
sesses. Today the institution which 
bears Smithson’s name, in addition to 
the income of the Smithsonian fund 
proper, which amounts to about $30,000 


I12 


yearly, has charge of the expenditure 
each year of $450,000. Exploration and 
all branches of geographical science have 
been generously encouraged and assisted 
by the institution during the half cen- 
tury of its existence. 

The nation to whom he was so gener- 
ous ought to insist in honoring the mem- 
ory of their great benefactor by bringing 
him to this country and giving him a 
permanent resting place in the grounds 
of the institution which he founded. 
It would be base ingratitude on our part 
to bury him again in Genoa, in another 
cemetery, where, as time goes on and the 
city grows, he will be again disturbed. 
We should place him where he may rest 
in peace, not for another seventy-five or 
one hundred years, but for as long time 
as the great nation lives in which he 
showed such complete confidence and 
respect. 


GAZETTEER OF THE PHILIPPINES 


“PRONOUNCING Gazetteer and 
Geographical Dictionary of the 
Philippine Islands’’ has been prepared 
by the Bureau of Insular Affairs of the 
War Department, and issued as Senate 
Document No. 280, Fifty-seventh Con- 
gress, first session. 

The gazetteer proper contains 264 
pages, including the index, while the 
geographical dictionary occupies 668 
pages, exclusive of the maps, charts, 
and illustrations. 

The work contains the most recent 
and authoritative information, from 
official and other sources, concerning 
the islands, relative to their geography, 
physical features, areas, communica- 
tions, population, towns, resources, 
wealth, products, industries, commerce, 
finance, social economy, natural history, 
military occupation, and civil govern- 
ment, followed by an alphabetically ar- 
ranged descriptive list of the islands, 
provinces, districts, pueblos, cities, 
towns, mountains, volcanoes, rivers, 


THe NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


seas, straits, gulfs, bays, lakes, capes, 
light-houses, and other mapped objects 
and places to the number of 10,300. 
The work is so extremely valuable 
that it is unfortunate the edition is so 
limited that only a few copies can be 
obtained by the public.. Persons who 
are unable to obtain a copy from a 
Senator or Representative may purchase 
one from the Superintendent of Public 
Documents, Washington, D. C., for 


$1.75. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF CUBA 


N a previous number of this Maga- 
zine mention has been made of the 
very complete telegraph system con- 
structed in Cuba by the U. S. Signal 
Corps since the Spanish-American war.** 
‘he system was turned over to the 
Cuban government when the United 
States withdrew from the island. 

Another important work was com- 
pleted recently when the railroad was 
opened that binds together the ends of 
the island. An English-American syn- 
dicate built the line. H. I. Davies, 
writing in The Scientific American,} has 
this to say of its value : 

The railroad is of standard gage, and 
its bridges are of steel and masonry ; 
its equipment will be similar to that of 
the best American railways, and it is 
intended to run through sleeping cars 
between Havana and Santiago de Cuba, 
a distance of nearly goo miles. 

Along the main line are to be found 
great areas of land of the richest de- 
scription, well watered and in most 
cases well wooded, suitable for sugar 
cane, tobacco, Indian corn, cotton, cof- 
fee, cacao, and all of the fruits of the 
tropical and sub-tropical regions. Other 
districts are peculiarly adapted to cattle; 


*See NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, 
p- 407, December, 1902; also report of the 
Chief Signal Officer, Gen. A. W. Greely, for 
1902, pp. II-17. 

ft January 24, 1903. 


| 
y 


B-R.3 EXISTING BEFORE JHE WAR. 
R. Bs COMPLETED SINCE THE WAR. 
PROPOSED EXTENSIONS. 


OL, 


GeocraPHic Nores 


Ihr OY 


Ca a 4EY GANA 
OL 4 


% 


113 


LS TE le CNM SG 


OC le 7 iil 


Zi 


YGUAMTANAMO 


)) 


Courtesy of The Scientific American 


Diagram Showing the Railways of Cuba 


cattle do well everywhere, for the 
grasses are luxuriant and highly nutri- 
tious, and there is usually an abun- 
dance of water. Around the coast are 
to be found many excellent harbors, 
and it is reported and believed that the 
unexplored part of the island contains 
much hidden mineral wealth. 

The interior, which is sparsely popu- 
lated, is comparatively level, and largely 
covered with hardwood timber, and 
while the soil of the different districts 
is generally of extraordinary fertility, 
some places are more desirable than 
others, both in this respect and in re- 
gard to healthfulness. For the tropics, 
the climate is a tolerable one, and the 
island will soon be rendered. more 
healthy by foreign irrigation, drainage, 
and an improved system of sanitation. 
The northern employes of the Cuba 
company have as a rule been free from 


illness of any kind, notwithstanding 
their employment on railway construc- 
tion under conditions not always favor- 
able to health. Unlike many of the 
West India islands, Cuba is entirely 
free from poisonous reptiles, and has 
fewer mosquito and similar pests than 
any other southern regions. 

There are no obtainable government 
lands in Cuba ; practically all of the 
lands are held by individuals, and in 
the eastern half of the island they are 
usually held in large areas. No system- 
atic land survey has yet been made, 
and the large tracts are mostly in irregu- 
lar forms and their boundaries are diffi- 
cult to define and trace; land titles in 
the unoccupied and in the newly settled 
parts of Cuba are in many cases de- 
fective and need investigation, though 
the government has recently taken steps 
toward the perfection of titles. 


Tt tA. 


TIMBERLINE 


N the last number of the NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE* the dis- 
tinguished geologist and physiographer, 
Prof. I. C. Russell, discusses the sub- 
ject of timberline, and suggests the use 
of the term in at least three different 
senses. It is seldom that I find myself 
called upon to differ from this eminent 


* Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. xiv, no. 2, pp. 80-81, 
February, 1903. 


THe Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


authority, but in the present instance 
I feel it my duty to file a protest. 

The term ‘‘ ¢imberline’’ has come to 
have a perfectly definite and well-under- 
stood meaning, accepted by naturalists 
the world over. /¢ is the upper or boreal 
limit of tree growth as determined by tem- 
perature. ‘Tousetheterm in other senses, 
as for upper limits of tree growth of 
dependent on temperature, for lower 
or austral limits of tree growth on moun- 
tains or other slopes, for the line where 


EOEEEREEEFEEEEEREEERELEEETELEEELELEEEL| 
| ze | alt <== a 


Lt 


Il 


I 


SLI 


Chart Showing Annual Precipitation at Salt Lake City and Water Level of 
Great Salt Lake 


EXPLANATORY NOTES. 


The upper line indicates the precipitation and the lower one the lake level. 
Broken lines indicate periods of no authentic observations, or that the data have been 


approximated. 


This chart was prepared by Mr L. H. Murdoch to illustrate his article on “‘ Why Salt Lake 
has Fallen,’’ in the last number of this Magazine. 


GeocraPHic Nores 


certain trees stop because of excess of 
water in the soil, and so on, is depriv- 
ing the term of its fixed and definite 
value. 

While on the subject of Professor 
Russell’s note, I may be permitted to 
suggest further that the lower limit of 
tree growth in many parts of the West 
is determined by temperature rather 
than aridity, though insome cases aridity 
is the controlling factor. To avoid mis- 
interpretation, it may be well to call 
attention to the self-evident fact that 
the temperature along the lower limit 
of timber on our western mountains is 
not, of course, too high for all tree 
growth, but too high for the particular 
kind or kinds of trees which flourish in 
that particular region. Thus the lower 
limits of the yellow pine and of the sev- 
eral species of juniper and nut pine are 
determined by definite temperatures. 
Other kinds of trees flourish at higher 
temperatures, but these trees have not 
access to the region. ~ 

C. HART MERRIAM. 


BUREAU OF FORESTRY 


HE work begun in 1902 by the 
Bureau of Forestry to check the 
advance of the sand dunes along the 
southeastern coast of the United States 
and in other sections of the country is 
being continued this year. 

In southern Virginia and northern 
North Carolina a chain of immense sand 
dunes stretches north and south along 
the coast. These dunes are moving 
slowly landward, and within the last 
few years have become dangerous to 
the United States life-saving stations 
and to private property of large value. 
Some time ago, at the request of a 
number of private owners, the Bureau 
made an examination of a district in 
Currituck County, N. C., and began 
work at one point to fix the drifting 
sand sufficiently to permit forest plant- 
ing. In cooperation with the owners of 


1 


the land, board fences and other struc- 
tures were erected to alter the course 
of the most threatening dunes. The 
work was so successful that last spring 
the ground was in condition for the 
planting of beach grass, which is being 
used temporarily as a cover. Witha 
fair growth of grass this season, forest 
planting on from 30 to 50 acres may be 
begun this year. The forest, besides 
protecting the buildings, will yield a 
much-needed supply of fuel. At other 
points in the same district, which ex- 
tends 30 miles along the coast, the 
Bureau is now giving similar aid.* 

An investigation is also being made 
of the dunes formed by the drift sand 
along the Columbia River in Washing- 
ton and Oregon. The dunes are destroy- 
ing valuable orchards and rich agri- 
cultural lands. They form serious 
hindrances to transportation along the 
lines of the Northern Pacific Railway 
and the Oregon Railroad and Naviga- 
tion Company. After a careful exami- 
nation the Bureau will attempt to de- 
vise methods for controlling the move- 
ment of thesand. The Oregon Railroad 
and Navigation Company is assisting 
in the investigation. 


ARGENTINA-CHILE BOUNDARY 
AWARD 


HE decision rendered in the Ar- 
gentina-Chile boundary dispute 

by King Edward VII is in the nature 
of a compromise. Argentina receives 
about 15,600 square miles of the dis- 
puted territory and Chile about 21,000. 
The area acquired by Argentina is the 
more fertile and valuable agriculturally 
and includes the upper valleys of several 
rivers flowing into the Pacific. Chile 
gains a large area of forest country and 
many square miles of upland, where 
large flocks of sheep can roam. ‘The 
results of this dispute have been the 


* See ‘‘ Report of the Forester for 1902,’’ by 
Gifford Pinchot. Pp. 135. 


116 


careful exploration and mapping of the 
boundary for nearly 1,000 miles. ‘The 
decision of Edward VII is printed in 
full in the ‘‘ Bulletin of the Bureau of 
the American Republics’’ for January, 
1903. 

Hon. John W. Foster, at the request of 
President Roosevelt and Secretary of 
State Hay, has taken charge of the 
presentation of the United States case 
in the Alaskan boundary dispute. Mr 
Foster will be assisted in the work by 
Mr Robert Lansing, who was one of 
the junior counsel in the Bering Sea 
Arbitration at Paris in 1893 and asso- 
ciate counsel of the United States in the 
Bering Sea Claims Commission of 1896. 
Secretary of War Root, Senator Lodge, 
and Senator Turner, of Washington, 
will represent the United States on the 
Commission. 


“Wind Velocity and Fluctuations of 
Water Level on Lake Erie” is the sub- 
ject of a bulletin by Prof. A. J. Henry 
issued by the U. S. Weather Bureau. 
The heavy westerly winds that sweep 
across Lake Erie from end to end pile 
the water high up in the harbor of Buf- 
falo and leave low water in the channel 
‘at the mouth of the Detroit River at the 
otherend of the lake. Shipping is much 
inconvenienced by such changes in level. 
Professor Henry, asa result of hisstudy 
of the variations in the water level, be- 
lieves that it is possible to predict ex- 
treme high water at Buffalo, so that in 
case of a severe seiche property-owners 
along the wharves could be warned in 
sufficient time to remove their goods. 
A series of diagrams show the wind 
velocity and water level hourly fluctua- 
tions on the lake from December 1, 
1899, to November 30, 1900. 


The Pittsburg Coal District.—The first 
of the series of new maps which are being 
prepared by the Geological Survey in 
cooperation with the State of Pennsyl- 
vania, has recently appeared as the 


Tue NartrionaL GeocrarpHic MaGaZzINne 


Masontown-Uniontown Geologic Folio, 
No. 82. The area covered by this folio, 
which is named from two of the lead- 
ing towns in the district, includes 458 
square miles and lies mainly in Fayette 
County, although also including por- 
tions of Greene and Washington coun- 
ties. ‘The folio includes 8 maps, show- 
ing the hills, streams, roads, houses, 
mines, coals, geologic formations, and 
the details of geologic structure. In 
addition to the maps, there are 21 large- 
size pages of description written by Mr 
Marius R. Campbell, in which the geol- 
ogy of the region is described in detail. 
Many sections showing thicknesses and 
the character of the coals are given. 


Thomas Willing Balch, of the Phila- 
delphia bar, will shortly have ready a 
monograph entitled, 7he Alaska Fron- 
tier. He will give in it reproductions 
of 28 maps, discuss the international 
law bearing on the boundary question, 


‘and bring out much new evidence. Mr 


Balch has collected his facts in Alaska, 
Saint Petersburg, Berlin, Paris, London, 
Edinburgh, and many other places. 


In the London Times for December 
16 and December 27, 1902, are pub- 
lished two long letters from Edward 
Whymper, the well-known mountaineer, 
describing some explorations he made 
among the Canadian Rockies in got 
and 1902. 


The Division of Hydrology, a new di- 
vision, has recently been organized in 
the hydrographic branch of the United 
States Geological Survey. The work of 
this division will include the gathering 
and filing of well records of all kinds, 
the study of artesian and other problems. 
relating to underground waters, and 
the investigation of the stratigraphy of 
the water-bearing and associated rocks. 
In addition to the gathering of statistics 
relating to the flow, cost, etc., of the 
wells, it is hoped in the future to give 
especial attention to the geologic feat- 


GerocraPHic Nores 


ures which govern or which are related 
in any way to the supply of water. 
The division will be subdivided into 
two sections, the eastern and the west- 
ern, the first embracing the Gulf and 
Mississippi River States and the States 
to the east, and the second embracing 
the remaining ‘‘reclamation’’ States 
and Territories, or those having public 
lands. The charge of each section has 
been assigned to a geologist, the western 
section to Mr N. H. Darton, and the 
eastern to Mr M. L. Fuller. The office 
details are in charge of Mr Fuller. 


Dr Hugh M. Smith is the author of an 
illustrated report on the ‘‘ Herring Fish- 
eries of England, Scotland, and Hol- 
land,’’ recently issued by the U. S. Fish 
Commission. The report is based on 
the observations made by Dr Smith 
during a visit in 1900 to the principal 
herring-fishing centers of the countries 
named. ‘The herring is today a leading 
fish in the United States, Canada, New- 
foundland, England, Scotland, Ireland, 
Holland, France, Norway, Sweden, and 
Russia. A species very similar to that 
of the Atlantic Ocean is found in the 
North Pacific Ocean, and is caught in 
large quantities in Japan and Alaska. 
In point of number of individual fish 
taken for market, no species exceeds 
the herring. The annual value of the 
herring fisheries is $25,250,000, repre- 
senting 1,500,000,000 pounds of fish. 


The Naval Hydrographic Office has is- 
sued a fourth edition of ‘‘ The Naviga- 
tion of the Gulf of Mexico and Carib- 
bean Sea’’ (volume 2), embracing the 
coast of the mainland from Key West, 
Florida, to the Orinoco River, Vene- 
zuela, with the adjacent islands, cays, 
and banks. 


One phase of the English interpreta- 
tion of the Alaskan boundary is seen by 
following their proposed line in the map 
on page go. Promontories belonging 
to the United States would be cut off 
from the mainland like islands, and have 


117 


no communication with each other ex- 
cept through foreign land or by water. 
In other words, the English contention 
would establish a series of artificial 
islands along the Alaskan coast. ‘The 
English interpretation contradicts the 
intent of all boundary lines, which are 
designed to follow a natural and con- 
venient dividing line. 


Dr J. L. M. Curry, a member of the 
National Geographic Society for many 
years, and distinguished as a statesman, 
educator, and author, died in Asheville, 
N. C., February 12. Dr Curry was 
born in Georgia 78 years ago. During 
the years 1857 to 1861 he was a member 
of Congress, and from 1861 to 1865 a 
member of the Confederate Congress 
and a lieutenant colonel in the C. S. A. 
From 1865 to 1881 he held chairs in 
Howard College and Richmond College. 
In 1885 President Cleveland appointed 
him Minister to Spain, where he repre- 
sented the United States for four years. 
Of late years Dr Curry has been the 
general agent of the Peabody and Slater 
educational funds. He has always been 
closely identified with all educational 
movements for and in the Southern 
States. He was the author of several 
books and many articles dealing with 
problems of the South. 


The proceedings of the Section of Geol- 
ogy and Geography of the American 
Association for the Advancement of 
Science, for the Washington meeting, 
December 26—-January 3, are published 
in Science for February 6, 1903, pp. 
217-229. 


The article by Hon. O. P. Austin on 
‘“Problems of the Pacific—the Com- 
merce of the Great Ocean,’’ published 
in the August, 1902, number of this 
Magazine, has aroused much interest 
in the Far Hast. It has been trans- 
lated into Japanese and published in 
Tokyo, and into Russian and published 
at Vladivostok. It is at present being 
rendered in Chinese, and will soon be 


118 


read in Chinese characters by the enter- 
prising merchants of China. 


Map Sheets of New York State. Among 
the latest which have come from the 
press of the Geological Survey are 
those of the Clayton and Grindstone 
quadrangles, which embrace portions 
of the State along the St Lawrence 
River in the vicinity of Clayton and the 
Thousand Islands, and those of the Ti- 
conderoga and Mettawee quadrangles 
which cover sections of northeastern 
New York along the Vermont boundary. 
The Ticonderoga sheet shows the his- 
toric region at the northern end of Lake 
George and the southern end of Lake 
Champlain and includes the eastern 
foothills of the Adirondack Mountains 
and a portion of Addison County, Vt. 
The Mettawee sheet covers a part of 
Washington County, N. Y., and the 
rugged region in western Bennington 
and Rutland counties, Vt. 


A Map of the Philippines is now on the 
press and will be issued during March 
by the Military Information Division 
of the War Department. The map in- 
cludes the results of practically all ex- 
plorations and surveys to the close of 
1902. Itis in four sheets, each sheet 
being 30 x 46 inches, and on the scale 
of 1:800,000. ‘The size of the entire 
map is thus 5 x7 feet 8 inches. 


The American Museum of Natural His- 
tory has sent Dr E. O. Hovey to the 
Lesser Antilles to continue his studies 
of the volcanic disturbances on Marti- 
nique and St Vincent. Dr Hovey plans 
to spend at least two months on the 
islands. After an examination of the 
present condition of La Souffriére and 
Mont Pelée, he will visit in turn each 
volcanic island in the group, taking 
photographs of their craters and sol- 
fataras, and making collections for the 
Museum. 


The family of S. A. Andrée, the Arctic 
aeronaut, have finally admitted that 
their last hope of his being still alive is 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MaGaZzINE 


gone. Andrée’s brother, Capt. Ernst 
Wilhelm Andrée, of the Swedish army, 
has applied to the courts to declare him 
dead, in order that he may obtain the 
small property willed him by the lost 
explorer. 


Mr E. J. Moura, Secretary of the Geo- 
graphical Society of the Pacific, an- 
nounces that as the Merchants’ Ex- 
change Building will soon be torn down 
to give space for another structure, the 
Council of the Society decided to re- 
move the library and office of the So- 
ciety to other quarters. The new loca- 
tion is 419 California street, corner of 
Leidesdorff street. This is the center 
of the city’s banking and insurance 
business, and convenient of access to 
the members, as well as to newspaper 
men who wish to consult charts of the 
U.S. Coast Survey, or desire informa- 
tion upon rivers, harbors, and moun- 
tain ranges. ‘The latest maps of Alaska 
and the Philippines will be open to in- 
spection. Letters and packages for the 
Society should be addressed to 419 Cali- 
fornia street, San Francisco, Cal. 


Commander J. F. Moser, U. S. N., is 
the author of a report on ‘‘ The Salmon 
and Salmon Fisheries of Alaska,’’ the 
result of exhaustive investigations by 
the Fish Commission in 1900 and r1gor. 
Many illustrations and maps of streams 
and bays accompany the text, making 
an exceedingly handsome and useful 
publication. 


A. B. Alexander is the author of an 
illustrated bulletin issued by the U. S. 
Fish Commission describing the boats 
and fishing methods of the natives of 
the South Sea Islands. The bulletin con- 
tains much that is interesting about 
the inhabitants of these South Pacific 
islands. 


Commander Robert E. Peary has been 
elected President of the American Geo- 
graphical Society of New York, suc- 
ceeding the Hon. Seth Low who re- 
signed several months ago. 


GEOGRAPHIC 


Handbook of Birds of the 
United States. By Florence Mer- 
tiam Bailey. With 33 full-page 
plates by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, and 


Western 


over 600 illustrations. Pp. xc +512. 
8x 5% inches. Boston: Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co. 1902. $3.50 met. 


Only minute study and infinite pa- 
tience, added to a personal acquaintance 
with nature and with practically every 
bird described, big or little, could make 
this book possible. The volume can- 
not be too strongly commended. ‘The 
person who knows nothing about birds 
is fascinated by the simple living de- 
scriptions, while the specialist gains a 
fund of information from the careful 
and systematic classification. 

The introduction of over 90 pages in- 
cludes articles on ‘‘ Collecting and Pre- 
paring Birds’ Nests and Eggs,’ by 
Vernon Bailey; ‘‘ Bird Protection,’’ by 
T. S. Palmer, local lists of birds found 
in different sections of the West, and a 
handily arranged bibliography, followed 
by a’key to families of water birds. 

The biography of each bird opens 
with a brief description of the principal 
characteristics of the bird, its plumage, 
size, distribution, where it builds its 
nest, and the color of its eggs. This 
is followed in every case by an account 
of the bird’s habits and life. Mrs 
Vernon Bailey has a delightful style 
and gives a personal interest to the 
subjects. The following random selec- 
tion is cited as an example : 

“Tn the stillness of the high moun- 
tain forests your ear sometimes catches 
the thin, finely drawn pipe of the brown 
creeper, and if you watch patiently on 
the dark-shaded boles of the lofty trees 
you may discover the little dark-colored 
creature—seeming small and weak in 
the great solemn fir forest—creeping 
up the trunks, examining the cracks 
with microscopic care as he goes. If 
he feels that his work has not been done 


LITERATURE 


thoroughly enough he drops back and 
does it over again ; and when one tree 
has been gone over to his satisfaction, 
he often flies obliquely down to the bot- 
tom of another trunk and creeps pa- 
tiently up that. On Mount Shasta, 
where the firs are decorated with yellow 
moss, the Sierra creeper goes around 
its pads when he comes to them, but 
works carefully over the dark lichen- 
covered branches. Sometimes he lights 
upside down on the under side of a 
branch, and clings like a fly, but with 
the aid of his pointed tail well pressed 
against the bark.’’ 

Mr Vernon Bailey is the author of 
a number of the biographies, and others 
who helped Mrs Bailey to make the 
book a success are Dr C. Hart Merriam, 
Mr R. Ridgway, Dr A. K. Fisher, Mr 
E. W. Nelson, and Dr T. S. Palmer. 


The Tragedy of Pelée. By George Ken- 


nan. Illustrated. Pp.257. 5%x8 
inches. New York. ‘The Outlook 
Co. 1902 $1.50 net. 


Mr Kennan went to Martinique on 
the Dixie as the special representative 
of The Outlook. 'This volume includes 
his letters to that journal revised and 
much enlarged. 

For vivid description some of the 
chapters in the volume are surpassed 
by few things in literature. In chap- 
ter IV, ‘‘In the Track of the Volcanic 
Hurricane,’’ an account is given of a 
long interview with Ciparis, the negro 
criminal who imprisoned in an under- 
ground dungeon escaped the deadly 
blast of May 8, and whom Mr Kennan 
had the enterprise to hunt up and per- 
sonally interview. The testimony of 
this man is of great importance in ex- 
plaining the causes of death on May 8. 
Ciparis was waiting for his breakfast, 
when suddenly it grew very dark, and 
also immediately after hot air mixed with 
fine ashes came in through the grating 


I20 


and burned him. He heard no noise, 
saw no fire, smelled nothing ‘‘ except 
what he thought was his own body 
burning.’’ ‘There was no smoke, and 
the hot air came in through the grating 
without any appreciable rush or blast. 
His clothing did not take fire, and yet 
his back was very severely burned under 
his shirt. 

An interesting phenomenon noted by 
Mr Kennan was the stellar lightning 
which characterized the night eruptions. 
Several illustrations of this are given. 

The chapter on ‘‘ Causes of the Ca- 
tastrophe’’ is worthy of a professional 
geologist, something that Mr Kennan 
does not profess to be. His belief is 
‘that the volcanic discharge which de- 
stroyed St Pierre came from a lateral 
fissure near the summit of the moun- 
tain; that it did not contain any con- 
siderable amount of gas; that it did 
not burst.into flame, and that it did not 
cause death by asphyxiation.’’ The 
death-dealing blast, according to Mr 
Kennan, was composed of superheated 
steam charged with fine dust. The 
weight of the dust carried by the steam 
depressed the blast so that it followed 
the slope of the mountain. The dust 
was hot enough to set fire to inflam- 
mable objects inside the houses, which 
did not catch fire from the outside, but 
from the inside. 

The volume is graphically illustrated 
from drawings by George Varian and 
from photographs by the author. 


The American Cotton Industry. 
T. M. Young. Pp. 146. 5x7% 
inches. London: Methuen & Co. 
New York: Imported by Charles 
Seribner’s Sons. 1902. 75c. 77. 
The author in the spring and early 

summer of 1902 visited the cotton-man- 

ufacturing districts in New England 
and in the Southern States. He had 
been sent from England by the cotton 
manufacturers of Manchester, who de- 
sired a careful investigation and com- 
parison of the cotton spinning and weav- 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


ing industry in England and the United 
States. It has been generally known 
for some years that the American cot- 
ton factories were outstripping those in 
England. Mr Young, as a result of his 
study, does not think the American 
weaver is more intelligent or better paid 
than the British weaver, but that our 
advantage is (1) because American man- 
agement is more economical of labor— 
that is, wedo not divert a skilled man’s 
attention and time to the small things 
which an unskilled man can do just as 
well, and (2) because the American 
manager is alert for the newest inven- 
tion, and adopts even inventions made 
in England before the English manager 
considers them. 


Year-book of the Department of Agri- 
culture, 1901, Edited by Geo. Wm. 


Hill. With plates and maps. Pp. 
846, 6% xg% inches. Washington: 


Government Printing Office, 1902. 

The Year-book for 1901 teems with 
important geographic material. The 
report of the Secretary takes 115 pages, 
and is followed by 33 articles on special 
topics, of which the following may be 
mentioned : 

““The Purpose of a Soil Survey.” 
Milton Whitney. 

‘“Tnsects as Carriers and Spreaders of 
Disease.’’ L. O. Howard. 

“The Future Demand for American 
Cotton.’ J. L. Watkins. 

‘“The Timber Resources of Alaska.’’ 
Wm. L. Hall. 

“Progress in Plant and Animal Breed- 
ing.’’ Willet M. Hayes. 

‘“A gricultural Seeds—Where Grown, 
How Handled.’’ A. J. Pieters. 

‘““The Prairie Dog of the Great 
Plains.’’ C. Hart Merriam. 

‘“Grazing in the Forest Reserves.’’ 
Filibert Roth. 

‘Agriculture in the Tropical Islands 
of the United States.’’ O. F. Cook. 

“ Little-Known Fruit Varieties Con- 
sidered Worthy of Wider Dissemina- 
tion.’? Wm. A. Taylor. 


GEOGRAPHIC 


“Two Vanishing Game Birds—The 
Woodcock and the Wood Duck.”” A. kK. 
Fisher. 

‘“Experimental Work with Fungous 
Diseases of Grasshoppers.”’ L. O. 
Howard. 

“The Hemp Industry in the United 
States.’’ Lyster H. Dewey. 

‘“ Wheat Ports of the Pacific Coast.’’ 
Edwin S. Holmes, Jr. 

Many handsome full-page plates and 
maps illustrate the text. 


BOOKS RECEIVED 


HE following new books have been 
received and will be reviewed in 
due course : 

‘“Mont Pelée and the Tragedy of 
Martinique.’’ By Angelo Heilprin. 
With many illustrations. Pp. x11I+ 
337, 6% by 9% inches. Philadelphia : 
J.B. Lippincott Co. 1903. $3.50 net. 

‘* Birds of the Rockies.’’ By Leander 
S. Keyser. With illustrations by Louis 
Agassiz Fuertes and Bruce Horsfall. 
Pp. 355, 6% by 9 inches. Chicago: 
McClurg & Co. 1902. $3.00 net. 

‘“The Conquest.’’ ‘The true story of 
Lewis and Clarke. By Eva E. Dye. 
Pp. 443, 5% by 8 inches. Chicago: 
McClurg & Co. 1902. $1.50. 

“United States Magnetic Declination 
Tables and Isogonic Charts for 1902, 
and Principal Facts Relating to Earth’s 
Magnetism.’’ By L. A. Bauer. With 
maps and illustrations. Pp. 405, 8 by 
I1¥%inches. Washington: U.S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey. 1902. 

““Mountaineering in the Sierra Ne- 
vada.’’ By Clarence King. Pp. 378, 
5% by 734 inches. New York: Charles 


Scribner’s Sons. 1902. $1.50. New 
edition. 
“Japanese Girls and Women.’’ By 


Alice Mabel Bacon. Pp. 337, 5% by 
8% inches. Withillustrations. Boston: 


Houghton, Miflin & Co. 1902. Re- 
vised and enlarged edition. 
“The Question of the Pacific.’’ 


‘Translated and enlarged from Dr Vic- 


LITERATURE 121 


tor M. Maurtua, by F. A. Pezet, Sec- 
retary to the Legation of Peru at Wash- 


ington. With map. Pp. 312, 6% by 
¥% inches. Philadelphia: George F. 
Lasher. 1901. 


‘* Some By- Ways of California.’’ By 

Charles F. Carter. Pp. 189, 5% by 
¥% inches. New York: The Grafton 
Press. 1902. 

“Complete Geography.’’ ByRalphs. 
Tarr and Frank M. McMurry. With 
many maps and illustrations. Pp. xI+ 
478+X, 6% by 8% inches. New York: 
The Macmillan Co. 1902. 

‘The Physical Geography of New 


York State.’ By Ralph S. Tarr. 
With many maps and diagrams. Pp. 
397, 6% byginches. New York: The 


Macmillan Co. 1902. $3.50 net. 

“Asiatic Russia.’’ By George Fred- 
erick Wright. With many maps and 
illustrations. 2 vols: XIII+290, XII+ 
291-637. New York: McClure, Phil- 
lips & Co. 1902. $7.50. 

‘““The Travels of Pedro Teixeira, 
with his ‘Kings of Harmuz’ and ex- 
tracts from his ‘Kings of Persia.’ ’’ 
Translated and annotated by William F. 
Sinclair, with further notes and an in- 
troduction by Donald Ferguson. Pp. 
C+2y92, 6 by ginches. London: Printed 
for the Hakluyt Society (series 11, vol. 
O)). - UGE2, 

“Report of Alfred C. Lane, State 
Geologist of Michigan, for 1gor.’’ With 
many maps. Pp. 304, 6 by 9g inches. 
Published by the State. Lansing, 1902. 

“Antarctica.’’ By Edwin Swift Balch. 


With maps. Pp. 230, 7 by Io inches. 
Philadelphia: Allen, Lane & Scott. 
1902. 


‘“American Diplomacy in the Orient.’’ 
By John W. Foster. Pp. x1v+498, 
6 by g inches. Boston: Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co. 1903. $3.00 net. 

‘Unknown Mexico.”’ By Carl Lum- 
holtz.. 2 vols. Pp.1,600. With over 
530 illustrations and maps, 6% by 9% 
inches. New York: Charles Scribner’s 
Sons. 1902. $12.00 net. 

“The Great Mountains and Forests 


22 


of South America.”’ 
With illustrations. 
inches. New York: Longmans, Green 
& Co. 1902. $3.00. 

‘“FHconomics of Forestry.’’ By Bern- 
hard E. Fernow. Pp. 520, 5% by 8 
inches. New York: Thomas Y. Cro- 
well & Co. 1902. $1.50 net. 

‘“‘A Tourin Mexico.’’ By Mrs James 
Edwin Morris. Withillustrations. Pp. 
322, 5% by 8 inches. New York, Lon- 
don, Montreal: The Abbey Press. 1902. 

“The Elements of General Method.’’ 


By Paul Fountain. 
Pp. 306, 6 by 9 


5) 


By Charles A. McMurry, Ph. D. Pp. © 


331, 5 by 7% inches. New York: The 
Macmillan Co. $0.90. 

“Lakes of Southeastern Wisconsin.”’ 
From Wisconsin Geological and Natural 
History Survey. By N. M. Fenneman, 
Ph. D. With illustrations. Pp. 178, 
6 by 9 inches. Published by the State. 
Madison, 1902. 

““Red-men’s Roads.’’ By Archer 
Butler Hulbert. With illustrations. 
Pp. 37, 6 by ginches. Columbus, Ohio: 
Fred J. Heer & Co. Igoo. 

“Commercial Geography.’’ By Wal- 
ter H. Olin, Superintendent City Schools 
of Ottawa, Kansas. With many illus- 
trations. Pp. 260, 8 by toinches. ‘To- 
peka: Crane & Co. 1902. 

‘* Highways and Byways in London.’’ 
By Mrs EK. T. Cook. With illustrations 
by Hugh Thomson and F. L. Griggs. 
Pp. 472, 514 by 8 inches. New York: 
The Macmillan Co. 1902. 

‘The Egregious English.’”’ By An- 
gus McNeill. Pp. 210, 5% by 8 inches. 
New York: G. P. Putnam’sSons. 1903. 

‘“’The Discoveries of the Norsemen in 
America, with Special Relation to Their 
Early Cartographical Representation.”’ 
By Joseph Fischer, S. J. Translated 
from the German by Basil H. Soulsby, 


B. A. With illustrations. Pp. 140, 7 
by to inches. St Louis, Mo.: B. Her- 
der. 10903. 


Japanese Oyster Culture, by Bashford 
Dean, Assistant professor in Zoology in 
Columbia University, and published by 


Tue Nationa, GeocRAPHic MaGaZzineE 


the Fish Commission, contains the re- 
sults of a study of the Japanese oyster 
by the author in 1900-1901. In artifi- 
cial oyster culture Professor Dean con- 
cludes the Japanese are considerably 
ahead of the United States, but behind 
France and Holland. Whether the 
Japanese oyster can be cultivated suc- 
cessfully along our Pacific coast may 
only be answered by experiment. 


RECENT PUBLICATIONS BY THE U.S. 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 


GAZETTEER of “‘Texas.’’ 

Henry Gannett. Pp. 164. 
With colored charts showing mean an- 
nual temperature, wooded areas, density 
of population, etc., and a large map of 
the state, prepared under the direction 
of Robert T. Hill. 

‘“ A Gazetteer of Cuba.’’ Henry Gan- 
nett. Pp. 112. With colored charts 
and a map. 

“Fossil Flora of the John Day Basin.”’ 
Frank Hall Knowlton. Pp 154. With 
many illustrations. 

‘““The Berea Grit Oil Sand in the 
Cadiz Quadrangle, Ohio.’’ W. T. Gris- 
wold. Pp. 42. With illustrations. 

‘Tests for Gold and Silver in Shales 
from Western Kansas.’’ Waldemar 
Lindgren. Pp. Ig. 

“Results of Primary Triangulation 
and Primary Traverse, fiscal year 190I— 
o2.’’ H. M. Wilson, J. H. Renshavwe, 
E. M. Douglas and R. U. Goode. Pp. 
164. With illustrations. 

‘* Reconnaissance of the Borax De- 
posits of Death Valley and Mohave 
Desert.’’ Marius R. Campbell. Pp. 
22. With illustration. 

““Geology and Water Resources of 
the Snake River Plains of Idaho.’’ Israel 
C. Russell. Pp. 192. With many illus- 
trations. 

‘‘ Bibliography and Index of North 
American Geology, Paleontology, Pe- 
trology and Mineralogy, for the year 
tgo1.’’ Fred Boughton Weeks. Pp. 144. 
‘“Structural Details of the Green 


CC 


NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Mountain Region, and in Eastern New 
York.” T. Nelson Dale. Pp. 22. With 
illustrations. 

‘“North American Geologic Forma- 
tion Names, Bibliography, Synonymy, 
and Distribution.’’ Fred Boughton 
Weeks. Pp. 448. 


Appalachian Forest Reserve. One of 
the most handsome of recent govern- 
ment publications is the large quarto 


123 


volume containing the ‘‘ Message from 
the President of the United States trans- 
mitting a Report of the Secretary of Ag- 
riculture in Relation to the Forests, 
Rivers, and Mountains of the Southern 
Appalachian Region,’’ issued by the 
Government Printing Office (1902). 
The report isan overwhelming array of 
facts showing the imperative necessity 
of making a great forest reservation of 
the Southern Appalachian region. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Lack of space makes it necessary to post- 
pone publication of the proceedings of the So- 
ciety until next month. 


REGULAR MEETINGS. 

March 13.—‘‘The Work of the Geological 
Survey.’ Hon, Charles D. Walcott. Cosmos 
Club, 8 p. m. 

March 27.—“ The Work of the Library of 
Congress.’”’ Hon. Herbert Putnam. Cosmos 
CJub, 8 p. m. 

This is the last meeting of the season. 


POPULAR LECTURES. 
March 4.—‘‘ The United States—Mines and 


Mining.’’? Mr Charles Kirchoff, editor of Zhe 
fron Age. Wlustrated. Columbia Theater, 
4.20 p.m. 


March 6,—‘‘ The Geographic Distribution of 
Insanity in the United States.’ Dr W. A. 
White, Director of the Binghamton State 
Hospital, New York, National Rifles’ Ar- 
mory, 8 p. m. 

March 11,—‘‘The United States—The Men 
who Make the Nation.’’ Vice-President W J 
McGee, LL. D. Columbia Theater, 4.20 p.m. 

March 20.—(The last lecture of the season. ) 
“*Captain John Smith and Old Virginia.’? Mr 
W. W. Ellsworth, of the Century Company. 
Illustrated. National Rifles’ Armory, 8 p.m. 


BY-LAWS OF THE NATIONAL GEO- 
GRAPHIC SOCIETY. ; 


ADOPTED May 16, 1902. 


ARTICLE I.—/Vame. 


The name of this Society is Zhe (National 
Geographic Society. 


ARTICLE II.—Obdject. 


The object of the Society is the increase and 
diffusion of geographic knowledge. 


ARTICLE III.—Membership. 


SECTION 1. The Society shall consist of mem- 
bers, honorary members, fellows, and patrons. 

Src. 2. Members shall be persons interested 
in geographic science. 

SEC. 3. Honorary members shall be persons 
who have attained eminence by the promotion 
of geographic science. They shall not be mem- 
bers of the corporation, nor shall they vote or 
hold office. 

SEC. 4. Fellows shall be persons engaged in 
scientific work pertaining to geography. They 
shall be members of the corporation. 

SEC. 5. Patrons shall be persons interested 
in geography who have contributed one thou- 
sand dollars or more to the objects of the So- 
ciety; they shall be entitled to all the privi- 
leges of membership for life. 

SEc. 6. The election of members, honorary 
members, fellows, and patrons shall be en- 
trusted to the Board of Managers. 


ARTICLE 1V.— Officers. 


SECTION I. The administration of the Soci- 
ety shall be entrusted to a Board of Managers 
composed of twenty-four members or fellows. 
eight of whom shall be elected by the Society 
at each annual meeting, to serve for three 
years, or until their successorsareelected. Of 
the eight members or fellows elected at each 
annual meeting, not less than four nor more 
than six shall be residents of the District of 
Columbia, A majority of the votes cast shall 
be necessary for election. 

SEC. 2. The Board of Managers shall elect 


124 


annually from their own number a President 
and a Vice-President, and shall elect annually 
a Treasurer and a Secretary. 

SEC. 3. The President shall preside at the 
meetings of the Society and of the Board of 
Managers, or may delegate this duty. The 
President and the Secretary shall sign all 


written contracts and obligations of the 
Society. 
SkEc. 4. In the absence of the President his 


duties shall devolve on the Vice-President. 
SEc. 5 The Treasurer shall have charge of 
the funds of the Society, under the direction 
of the Board of Managers, and shall make col- 
lections and disbursements and render an an- 
nual report, and his accounts shal] be audited 


by a committee of the Society, not members . 


of the Board, annually and at such other times 
as the Board may direct. 

SEc. 6. The Secretary shall record the pro- 
ceedings of the Society and of the Board of 
Managers, conduct correspondence, and make 
an annual report. 

Src. 7. The Board of Managers shall fill 
vacancies arising in the Board. 

SEc. 8. All officers shall serve until their 
successors are chosen. 


ARTICLE V.—Commiittees. 


SECTION I. The Board of Managers shall 
select annually from its own number an Ex- 
ecutive Committee. 

SEC. 2. There shall be standing committees 
on Publications, Communications, Admissions, 
Research, and Finance, whose chairmen shall 
be members of the Board of Managers. These 
committees shall be appointed immediately 
after the annual election of the President, to 
serve until their successors are designated. 

SEc. 3. The committees of the Society and of 
the Board of Managers shall be appointed by 
the President except when otherwise provided. 
The President shall be a member ex officio of 
every committee. 


ARTICLE VI.—/inanees. 


SECTION I. The fiscal year of the Society 
shall begin on the first day of January. 

SEc. 2. The annual dues of members shall 
be two dollars, payable in January. 

SEc. 3. Fellows shall pay an initiation fee 
of ten dollars on notice of election. 

SEc. 4. Members or fellows may commute 
annual dues and acquire life membership by 
the payment at one time of fifty dollars. 

Src. 5. Members or fellows whose dues re- 
main unpaid on March I shall be notified by 
the Treasurer that unless the dues are paid 
within one month they will be in arrears and 
not entitled to vote at the annual meeting, to 
receive the publications of the Society, or to 


Tue Nationa GrocrAPHic MaGAZINE 


purchase lecture tickets on members’ terms. 
Members or fellows one year in arrears shall, 
after formal notification, be regarded as hay- 
ing withdrawn from the Society. 

SEC. 6. The funds of the Society may be in- 
vested and loans may be negotiated in the inter- 
ests of the Society, and any other financial 
business germane to the purposes of the So- 
ciety may be transacted, by the Board of Man- 
agers. 


ARTICLE VII.—WMWVeetings. 


SECTION I. Regular meetings of the So- 
ciety shall be held on alternate Fridays from 
November until May. 

Src. 2. Special meetings may be ordered by 
the Board of Managers or called by the Presi- 
dent. 

Sec. 3. The annual meeting shall be held in 
the District of Columbia on the second Friday 
in January. 

Src. 4. Twenty members or fellows shall 
constitute a quorum. 

Src. 5 Regular meetings of the Board of 
Managers shall be held on the same days as the 
regular meetings of the Society; special meet- 
ings may be held at the call of the President 
or on notice signed by five members of the 
Board: Provided, That for any of its own meet- 
ings the Board may substitute meetings of the 
Executive Committee. 

Sec. 6. Lectures and lecture courses may be 
provided by the Foard of Managers. Free ad- 
mission to such lectures shall not be a preroga- 
tive of membership, but tickets shall be sold to 
members and fellows on more favorable terms 
than to non-members: Provided, That each 
life member who acquired life membership 
prior to the year rgor shall be entitled to two 
admissions to each lecture and course. 


ARTICLE VIII.—/Publications. 


The Society shall publish a journal or peri- 
odical under the title, Zhe National Geo- 
graphic Magazine, which shall be sent to all 
members and fellows of the Society not in ar- 
rears, and may be placed on sale. 


ARTICLE IX.—Amendments. 


These By-Laws may be amended by a two- 
thirds vote of the members present at any 
regular meeting, provided the proposed amend- 
ments are reported by the Board of Managers, 
and provided that notice thereof has been sent 
to all members of the Society not less than ten 
nor more than sixty days before the meeting. 
The publication of proposed amendments in 
The National Geographic Magazine shall be 
deemed a notice within the meaning of this 
article. 


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CONTENTS 


REINDEER IN ALASKA. BY GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, 
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EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE” WRANGELL sia a 
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SCOTTISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 
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MAGA ZINIE 


APRIL, 1903 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 


By Grrspertr H. Grosvenor 


WELVE years ago Dr Sheldon 
Jackson brought his first herd 
of 16 reindeer across Bering 

Strait from Siberia and started his rein- 
deer colony at Unalaska, off the bleak 
coast of Alaska. Many then smiled at 
the experiment and declared his plan for 
stocking the great barrens of northwest- 
ern Alaska with thousands of the ani- 
mals which for centuries had been indis- 
pensable to the natives of Lapland and 
Siberia was impracticable and wasteful 
of time and good money. But the ex- 
periment prospered from the very first. 
Other reindeer, numbering nearly 1,000 
in all, during the succeeding years were 
brought over from Siberia. Today there 
are nearly 6,000 head in the various 
herds distributed along the Alaskan 
coast from Point Barrow to Bethel. The 
existence of the 20,000 natives of north- 
western Alaska, as well as the success of 
the miners who are beginning to throng 
into the interior of the territory in the 
far north, are dependent upon these 
domestic reindeer; their clothing, their 
food, their transportation, their utensils, 
and their shelter are all furnished them 
by the reindeer. 

The reindeer enterprise is no longer 
an experiment although still in its in- 


fancy. ‘There are 400,000 square miles 
of barren tundra in Alaska where no 
horse, cow, sheep, or goat can find pas- 
ture; but everywhere on this vast ex- 
panse of frozen land the reindeer can 
find the long, fibrous, white moss which 
is hisfood. ‘There is plenty of room for 
10,000,000 of these hardy animals. The 
time is coming when Alaska will have 
great reindeer ranches like the great 
cattle ranches of the southwest, and 
they will be no less profitable. 

‘The story of the inception and growth 
of the reindeer enterprise in Alaska is 
very interesting and is not generally 
known. During an extended trip of in- 
spection of the missionary stations and 
government schools in Alaska in the 
summer of 1890*, Dr Sheldon Jackson 
was impressed with the fact that the 
natives in arctic and subarctic Alaska 
were rapidly losing the sources of their 
food supply. Each year the whales 
were going farther and farther north, 
beyond the reach of the natives who had 


* Dr Sheldon Jackson first visited Alaska in 
1877, in the interest of schools and missions. 
He made a second trip in 1879. Other visits 
followed, and since his appointment as Gen- 
eral Agent of Education in Alaska in 1885 he 
has made annual visits to the territory. 


128 sta 


NaTionaL GsocrapHic MAGAZINE 


From a photograph by R. N. Hawley, M. D. 


Reindeer on the Siberian Beach, Hobbled, waiting to be Loaded on the Bear for 
‘Transportation to Alaska 


For 20 years the revenue cutter Gear has been engaged in Arctic work. 


It has saved the 


lives of hundreds of wrecked whalers, and contributed more to the comfort and safety of the 
settlements along the Alaskan coast than any vessel in the service. 


no steamships in which to pursue them; 
the walrus, which formerly had been 
seen in herds of thousands, were disap- 
pearing; the seals were becoming exter- 
minated, and in winter the Eskimo had 
to tramp 15 to 20 miles out on the ice 
before he could catch one. ‘The modern 
hunter, with his steam launches and 
rapid-fire guns, had found the whales, 
walrus, and seals such easy prey that he 
was ruthlessly destroying them. Also 
the wild caribou, that the native had 
easily captured before, had been fright- 
ened away and was rarely seen. 

Not only was the Eskimo losing his 
food, but what in an arctic climate is no 
less important, his clothing as well. The 
whalebone, the ivory tusks of the wal- 
rus, the seal skin, and the oil had given 
him means of barter with the Siberian 
traders across the Strait, from whom 
he obtained reindeer skins to keep him 
warm in winter. 


Dr Jackson saw that unless something 
was done at once the United States 
would have to choose between feeding 
the 20,000 and more natives or letting 
them starvetodeath. The latter course 
was impossible; the former rather ex- 
pensive, as supplies would have to be 
carried some 3,000 miles from Seattle. 
The more enterprising Siberian, living 
on the opposite side of the Strait under 
practically the same conditions of arctic 
cold, got along very nicely, as he had 
great herds of domestic reindeer to fall 
back upon when game was scarce. ‘The 
same moss which covered so many thou- 
sands of miles of the plains of arctic 
Siberia was seen everywhere in Alaska. 
The tame reindeer of Siberia was prac- 
tically the same animal as the wild 
caribou of Alaska, changed by being 
domesticated for centuries. Could not 
the Eskimo be made self-supporting by 
giving him reindeer herds of his own ? 


129 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 


Reindeer Herd, Siberia 


U.S, Revenue Cutter Lear in the offing 


From a photograph by A. Weeks, M. D. 


Tue Narionan GrocrapHic MaGaZzIne 


iL 3S 


‘SO cw “veds "a ‘Hy Aq ydeasojoyd v wo, 


vysvpy ‘puvs] somoIMe’y 49 ‘I9puley Surpropwy 


«ce tN TENN NE 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 


Outline Map Showing Government Reindeer Stations in Alaska 


On his return to the United States, 
during the winter of 1891, Dr Sheldon 
Jackson, in his annual report to Con- 
gress, asked for an appropriation to 
provide the money for importing a few 
deer. Congress was not convinced of 
the wisdom of such action, but several 
private persons were so interested that 
they placed $2,000 at Dr Jackson’s dis- 
posal to begin the experiment; the first 
deer were brought over that year. It 
was not long, however, before the gov- 
ernment realized the importance of the 


* Congressional appropriations for the intro- 
duction into Alaska of domestic reindeer from 
Siberia are as follows: 


1894. $6,000 UC|XO)si couod $25,000 
i3'0 fy eG 7,500 UCM guac0d 25,000 
BOGOR elle: 7,500 UO Wononooe 25,000 
LOO Fioverse ries U2,OOOM NE LOOZ eee 25,000 
EEG Serato iio) 12,500 —- 

RS GO yeas =:-1- 12,500 Total.. $158,000 


Congress entrusts the general charge of the 
work to the Bureau of Education, of which 
Dr William T. Harris is the distinguished 


movement, and in 1894 appropriated 
the sum of $6,000 to continue the work. 
Later the appropriation was increased, 
and during the last several years has 
amounted to $25,000 annually. * 

The Siberians were at first unwilling 
to part with any of their reindeer. They 
were superstitious and above all afraid 
of competition and loss of trade across 
the strait. Capt. M. A. Healy, who 
was commissioned to purchase the deer 
in 1891, was obliged to sail from village 
to village for 1,500 miles along the Si- 


head ; the formulation of plans and their exe- 
cution is entrusted to Dr Sheldon Jackson, 
general agent of education in Alaska. Dr 
Harris, in his annual reports to Congress, has 
vigorously urged the importance of the work, 
and to him credit is due for a large share of 
its success. Capt. M. A. Healy and the many 
officers of the revenue cutter service, whose 
vessels have year after year carried the agents 
of the bureau back and forth and brought the 
reindeer from Siberia without charge, have 
also contributed to the success of the reindeer 
enterprise. 


Tur NarionaL GrocraPHic MaGAZzIne 


132 


TOe}G Ioopul9yY I9][T, Opry ysis Aymeyz v uo suniwyg strsig “T VL TIN 


Jpruryosurapy Aq ydessojoyd ve wow 


VAG - 


\ 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 


berian coast before he found an owner 
willing to barter his reindeer for Amer- 
ican goods. None would sell the deer 
forcash. Of recent years the Siberians 
have been but little less reluctant to 
part with their deer though they could 
easily spare many thousands from their 
vast herds without knowing it. 

The first deer brought over were 
from the Chukches herds—a tough and 
hardy breed. Two years ago Lieuten- 


133 


Part Clarence. His experiences during 
his remarkable journey were most inter- 
esting, and are admirably described in 
his report to Dr Sheldon Jackson, pub- 
lished in 1902. 


THE ESKIMO AS HERDERS 
With careful training the Eskimo 
make excellent herders. They are by 


nature good imitators, though not in- 
ventive, and readily learn how to take 


Krom a photograph by EH. P. Bertholf 


Traveling With Reindeer in Summer 


ant Bertholf was commissioned to go 
to Siberia and try to purchase some of 
the Tunguse stock, which are larger, 
stronger and sturdier. Starting from 
St Petersburg, after a long journey 
across Siberia, much of it by sled, he 
succeeded in purchasing several hun- 
dred Tunguse near Ola, hired a steamer, 
embarked the reindeer at Ola with 2,500 
bags of reindeer moss, and finally landed 
200 of the animals in good condition at 


care of the reindeer, to throw the lasso, 
to harness and drive the deer, and to 
watch the fawns. Siberian herders were 
at first imported to teach them, and later 
the more intelligent and efficient Lap- 
landers, who have learned by centuries 


*** Report on the Introduction of Domestic 
Reindeer into Alaska.’? By Sheldon Jackson, 
LL. D., 1901. Appendix, Expedition to Sibe- 
ria, report of Lieutenant EK. P. Bertholf, pp. 
130-168. 


134 


of experience to give to the breeding of 
reindeer the care that we give to the 
breeding of cattle. In the winter of 
1898 sixty-three Laplanders and their 
families volunteered to go to Alaska, 
the U. S. Government paying the ex- 
penses of their long journey of 10,c00 
miles. When their term of enlistment 
expired some reénlisted, some of them 
went home again, but the majority 
turned miners. Every one will be glad 
to know that at least two-thirds of the 


Froni a photograph by E. P. Bertholt 


Breaking a Path Through Deep Snow 


whole number made large fortunes in 
the Cape Nome gold fields. 

‘The reindeer herders have to bewatch- 
ful. Now and then reckless miners try 
to plunder the herds, or by their care- 
lessness set fire to the moss. A fire 
will sweep over the moss barrens, lick- 
ing up every fiber of the moss, as it 
sweeps over our western prairies. A 
moss fire is even more destructive, for 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


many years pass before the moss will 
grow again. 

At the end of a year’s service the 
government makes a gift to deserving 
herders of two or more reindeer. 


REINDEER RAISING AS AN INDUSTRY 


When one considers that raising rein- 
deer in Alaska is simple and the profits. 
enormous, one is surprised that as yet 
no one has really gone into the reindeer 
business, especially at Dawson, where a 

. rich market awaits the rein- 
deer farmer. 

A fawn during the first 
four years costs the owner 
less than $1 a year. At the 
end of the four years it will 
bring at the mines from $50. 
to $100 for its meat, or if 
trained to the sled or for the 
pack, is easily worth $100 to 
$150. 

The fawns are very healthy 
and but few die; the does are 
prolific, and after they are 
two years of age add a fawn 
to the herd each year for ten 
years. Last year, out of 50: 
does two years and more of 
agein one herd, 48 had fawns, 
-and of these only five died, 
three of which were lost 
through accidents or by the 
carelessness of the herder. 

The reindeer are so gre- 
garious and timid that one 
herder can easily guard 1,000. 
head. The herder knows 
that if a few stray off he 
need not look for them as they will 
soon become frightened and rejoin the 
main herd. : 

The does make almost as good sle 
deer as the bulls and geldings. They 
are slightly smaller and less enduring. 

The Chukches deer cost in Siberia 
about $4.00 a head for a full-grown doe 
or bull. The fawns born in Alaska are 
larger and heavier than the parent stock. 


b 35 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 


Milking 


Reindeer 


) 


Teller Reindeer Station 


From a photograph by Tappan Adney 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGazine 


Freighting with Reindeer—Cape Prince of Wales 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 


From a photograph by E. P. Bertholft 


Traveling Deerback Through Deep Snow 


The Tunguse deer cost nearly $7.50 
apiece. By theaddition of the Tunguse 
breed it is hoped that the Alaska stock 
will be improved and toughened. 

The reindeer cow gives about one 
teacupful of very rich milk, nearly as 
thick as the best cream, and making 
delicious cheese. Mixed with a little 
water, the milk formsa refreshing drink. 
The Siberians and Laplanders save the 
blood of slaughtered deer and serve it in 
powdered form. From the sinews tough 
thread is obtained. 


REINDEER EXPRESS 


The Alaskan reindeer can hardly 
equal the speed of the Lapland deer, 
which Paul du Chaillu* describes as 
making from 150 to 200 miles a day, 
and sometimes 20 to 25 miles down hill 


*“The Land of the Long Night,” Paul du 
Chaillu. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 


inasingle hour. A pair of them can 
pull a load of 500 to 700 pounds at the 
rate of 35 miles a day and keep it up 
weeks at a time. W. A. Kjellmann 
drove his reindeer express one winter 
95 miles in a single day. 

Reindeer teams during the past win- 
ter carried the United States mail from 
Nome to Candle City, on the Arctic 
Ocean, a distance of 260 miles. ‘The 
teams had heavy loads of passengers 
and freight and made the distance in 
eight days. Dog teams would have re- 
quired fifteen to twenty days for the 
trip. 

The reindeer can travel at night as 
wellas in the daylight, and thus during 
the long Arctic night when dogs are 
inefhcient transportation is always pos- 
sible with a reindeer team. 

The reindeer make good packers in 
summer. One hundred and fifty pounds 
is a fair load. ‘They also can be ridden 


138 


in the saddle, but not with much com- 
fort until the rider learns how to adjust 
himself. In the Tunguse country the 
natives use their deer in summer as we 
would a mule or horse. It is no un- 
common sight to see a Tunguse trotting 
along the shore deerback. 

Lieutenant Bertholf describes the cara- 
vans of reindeer sleds in northeastern 


From a photograph by E. P. Bertholf 


Riding in Summer 


Alaska. Over 1,ooosleds leave Ola (see 
map) during the winter in caravans of 
about tooeach. A caravan of 100 sleds 
ismanaged by 1omen. Some years ago 
the Russian Government used horses on 
the caravan route from Ola to the Kolima 
River, but recently substituted reindeer, 
and now saves $60,000 yearly by the 
change. 


Tue Nationa, GrocrarpHic MAGAZINE 


The illustration * on page 134 shows 
the leaders of Lieutenant Bertholf’s 
party breaking a path through snow 
that reached to the belly of the deer. 
A strong wiry deer, unmounted, was 
driven first. In the deep snow he could 
advance only by jumps, but his leaps 
broke the way somewhat for the next 
few deer, who were also unmounted. 
After a dozen or more un- 
mounted deer had passed 
by, deer ridden by a boy 
and girl broke the path 
still further until deer 
with heavy loads could 
pass. Lieutenant Berth- 
olf in this way broke 
his path for 160 miles 
through the deep snow. 

When the caravan halts 
the deer are turned out to 
pasture untethered and 
allowed to wander as they 
will. The driver uses a 
switch to touch up the 
slothful, but ‘‘some of 
the old deer do not seem 
to minda switch any more 
than does anarmy mule.’’ 

The illustration on page 
142 shows a number of 
reindeer digging up the 
snow with their powerful 
hoofs to get at the moss 
beneath the snow. As 
soon as spring comes the 
deer abandons his diet of 
moss, which seems to be 
most nutritive in winter, 
for willow sprouts, green 
grass, and mushrooms. 
The hoof of the reindeer is as wide as 
that of a good-sized steer and prevents 
him from settling down into damp snow 
or miry soil. 


*For the exceedingly interesting series of 
illustrations that accompany this article, the 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE is in- 
debted to Dr Sheldon Jackson and Dr William 
Hamilton. 


Les) 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 


Tethered During a Halt 


140 Tue NarionaL GeocrapHic Macazine 


From a photograph by A. Weeks, M. D. 


A Siberian Woman and Daughter 


REINDEER 


REINDEER LOANED BY THE GOVERN- 
MENT 

The U. S. Government loans a cer- 
tain number of the reindeer to the 
mission stations, or to individuals who 
have shown their ability, reserving the 
right, after three or five years, of call- 
ing upon the mission station or the indi- 
vidual for the same number of deer as 
composed the original 
herd loaned. In 1894 
the Congregational mis- 
sion at Cape Prince of 
Wales was granted the 
loan of 100 deer. ‘The 
mission has since paid 
back the loan, and now 
possesses in its own right 
one thousand head. 

A few of the herds, 
notably that at Cape 
Prince of Wales, have 
grown so large that the 
owners are able to kill off 
some of the extra males 
for food for the families 
of the herders, and to sell 
others to the butchers in 
the neighboring mining 
camps. Last year deer 
for slaughter brought 
from $60 to $100 each, 
while for male deer train- 
ed to harness miners gave 
as much as $150 apiece. 
The herders at this same 
station earned last winter 
$600 in gold for freight- 
ing with their reindeer to 
the mining camps. The 
deer were worked in dou- 
ble trace harness like 
horses, and hauled on sleds 790 pounds 
each. 

Of the 60 individual owners of do- 
mestic reindeer in Alaska today, 44 are 
Eskimo. Most of them have served a 
five-year apprenticeship, and having 
earned their deer are competent to care 
for them. 


IN ALASKA I41 


Each owner has his own individual 
mark, which is branded on the left or 
right ear of each of his deer. 


IMPORTANCE OF REINDEER TO 
MISSION STATIONS 


The Bureau of Education hopes that 
in time each mission station will possess 
a herd of atleast 5,000 head. A rein- 


Lieutenant Bertholf Mounted on Reindeer, Showing 
the Ability of the Reindeer to Carry 210 Pounds 


deer herd at a mission station in arctic 
or subarctic Alaska means, says Dr 
Jackson : 

First. The permanence of the mis- 
sion. Without it the natives are away 
from home a larger fortion of the year 
in search of food, and, since the advent 
of the miners, are inclined to leave their 


ny in ay bases 
a 


es 


Copyright, 1899 Charles Scribner’s Sons 


Reindeer Digging Up the Snow to Get the Moss Beneath 


Republished from ‘‘Land of the Long Night,’’ by Paul du Chaillu, by courtesy of the 
publishers 


homes and congregate in the American 
villages at the mines, where they live 
by begging and immorality and soon 
disappear from the face of the earth. 

Second. It affords the missionary 
the opportunity of rewarding and en- 
couraging those families that give evi- 
dence of being teachable by establish- 
ing them in the reindeer industry, and 
thus greatly promoting their material 
interests. 

Third. With the increase of the herd 
it becomes a source of revenue through 
the sale of the surplus males at remu- 
nerative prices tothe miners and butch- 
ers. Ina few years this revenue should 
be sufficient to entirely support the mis- 
sion and thereby relieve the treasury of 
the central Missionary Society. 


Fourth. The possession of a herd in- 
sures to the mission family a continuous 
supply of fresh meat. Thisto a family 
which is compelled to live largely upon 
salted and canned meats and canned 
vegetables is of no small benefit, pro- 
moting their comfort, health, and use- 
fulness. 

Fifth. Reindeertrained to harness and 
sleds greatly increase the efficiency and 
the comfort of the missionary in minis- 
tering to outlying native settlements. 


REINDEER FROM LAPLAND 


The vast majority of the American 
people have an idea that the reindeer 
experiment in Alaska proved a failure 
long ago, simply because of the widely 
advertised unsuccessful attempt in 1898 


REINDEER IN ALASKA 143 


From a photograph by A. Weeks, M. D. 


A Siberian, the Owner of 10,000 Head of Reindeer, and a 
Cossack Official 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MaGAZINE 


, 


144 


Ipjvudtog Aq dv. 


ZOOL 


1SO}OYd BULONT 


( 


So[v 


M 


jo 9 


oll 


i 


Iq odv 


2) 


jooyss orqug jo sidng 


REINDEER 


of bringing deer from Lapland. Only 
once have reindeer been brought from 
Europe for Alaska, and that attempt 
was unsuccessful, not because the rein- 
deer could not live in their new home, 
but because of the wretched transpor- 
tation given them from Seattle to their 
Alaskan destination. 

In December, 1897, rumors were 
started that American miners in the 
Yukon Valley were in danger of starva- 
tion. Congress appropriated a large 
sum for their relief, and commissioned 
Dr Sheldon Jackson to go to Norway 
and Sweden to purchase 500 reindeer 
broken to the harness, with sleds, har- 
ness and drivers, for hauling supplies 
from the head of Lynn Canal to the 
destitute miners, 1,000 miles away. 

Dr Jackson reached Europe in Janu- 
ary, purchased 526 trained deer, gath- 
ered 68 Lapp drivers with their families, 
embarked them all on one ship, and 
sailed for New York from Trondhjem, 
February 4. Only one deer died on the 
voyage of 24 days, though the trip was 
a most tempestuous one and the deer 
in pens on the deck were drenched day 
and night by the seas that broke over 
them. At New York special trains met 
the expedition and carried them across 
the continent to Seattle without the 
loss of asingle deer. Then the troubles 
began. The supply of moss brought 
from Norway became exhausted, and 
the deer did not like the grass of Seattle. 
There was delay in securing a vessel to 
transport the expedition to the head of 
Lynn Canal, and further delays at Lynn 
Canal and no moss to be found there. 

Nearly 300 of the reindeer died of 
starvation before the moss fields at the 
head of the Chilkat River, about 50 
miles from Lynn Canal, were reached. 
The remaining 200 were too weakened 
to endure the long journey to the Yukon 
Valley, and the relief expedition had to 
be abandoned, but fortunately not be- 
fore the country had learned that the 
miners in the Yukon had abundant sup- 


IN ALASKA 145 


plies, and that the relief expedition had 
been unnecessary. 

The Laplanders who had been brought 
over were distributed among the rein- 
deer stations and employed to teach the 
natives. 


RELIEF OF WHALERS AT POINT 
BARROW 


The first forcible realization of the 
wisdom of the government in stationing 
reindeer herds in Alaska came to the 
American people in the winter of 1897- 
"98. In the fall of 1897 word was re- 
ceived that eight whaling ships had been 
imprisoned in the ice near Point Bar- 
row, and that the 400 American seamen 
aboard were stranded without food for 
the long winter till the ice should open 
in July. No vessel of relief could get 
within 2,000 miles of the party, or 
nearer than Denver isto Boston. There 
was no known method by which pro- 
visions could be dragged overland. If 
the government had not five years be- 
fore commenced the introduction of 
the reindeer, most of these 4oo men 
would have starved to death before help 
reached them. Fortunately there were 
large herds of reindeer at Cape Nome 
and at Cape Rodney, over one thousand 
miles by land from Point Barrow, or 
farther than Chicago is from New York. 
The government hurried the revenue 
cutter Geary north from Seattle, carrying 
three brave volunteers—Lieut. David 
H. Jarvis, Lieut. Ellsworth P. Bertholf, 
and Dr Samuel J. Call. The three men 
were landed December 16, 1897, at Cape 
Vancouver, obtained some dog teams 
from the natives, and commenced their 
dreary journey of 2,000 miles through 
the Arctic night to Point Barrow. They 
collected about 450 reindeer from the 
herds at Rodney and Nome, and then, 
with reindeer instead of dog sleds and 
with Mr W. T. Lopp, agent of the 
American Missionary Society at Cape 
Prince of Wales, and Charley Arisar- 
took, a native, and several herders, they 


146 


pushed on through the storms and bitter 
cold of an Arctic winter, driving the 
deer before them. After a journey of 
three months and twelve days, on March 
29, 1898, they reached the destitute 
whalers, just in time to save them from 
great suffering and death. 

In heroism, pluck, and endurance the 
journey of these men has rarely been 
equaled. Congress voted its thanks to 
the gallant rescuers and awarded them 
special medals of honor, but in the ex- 
citement aroused throughout the coun- 
try by the rapid succession of events of 
the Spanish-American war their work 
was almost unnoticed. 

Since that time a reindeer herd has 
been kept at Point Barrow so there is 
no longer danger of ice-imprisoned 
whalers perishing from starvation. The 
experience also showed the faithfulness 
of the Eskimo. Mr Lopp had left his 
wife at his station, the only white per- 
son among 400 natives, but during his 
absence of nearly five months she re- 
ceived nothing but constant courtesy 
and kindness from them. 


DEVELOPMENT OF ARCTIC AND SUB- 
ARCTIC ALASKA DEPENDENT 
ON THE REINDEER 


The original motive in bringing the 
reindeer to Alaska was purely philan- 
thropic—to give the native a permanent 
food supply. 

Since then the discovery of large and 
valuable gold deposits upon the streams 
of arctic and subarctic Alaska has made 
the reindeer a necessity for the white 
man as well as for the Eskimo. Pre- 
vious to the discovery of gold there was 
nothing to attract the white settler to 
that desolate region, but with the knowl- 
edge of valuable gold deposits thousands 
will there make their homes, and towns 
and villages are already springing into 
existence. 

But that vast region, with its perpet- 
ual frozen subsoil, is without agricult- 
ural resources. Groceries, breadstufts, 


THe NationaL GeoGrarHic MAGAZINE 


etc., must be procured from the outside. 
Steamers upon the Yukon can bring 
food to the mouths of the gold-bearing 
streams, but the mines are often many 
miles up these unnavigable streams. 
Already great difficulty is experienced 
in securing sufficient food by dog-train 
transportation and the packing of the 
natives. The miners need reindeer 
transportation. 

Again, the development of the mines 
and the growth of settlements upon 
streams hundreds of miles apart neces- 
sitate some method of speedy travel. 
A dog team on a long journey will make 
on an average from 15 to 20 miles a day, 
and in some sections cannot make the 
trip at all, because they cannot carry 
with them a sufficient supply of food 
for the dogs, and can procure none in 
the country through which they travel. 
To facilitate and render possible fre- 
quent and speedy communication be- 
tween these isolated settlements and 
growing centers of American civiliza- 
tion, where the ordinary roads of the 
states have no existence and cannot be 
maintained except at an enormous ex- 
pense, reindeer teams that require no 
beaten roads, and that at the close of a 
day’s work can be turned loose to for- 
age for themselves, are essential. The 
introduction of reindeer into Alaska 
makes possible the development of the 
mines and the support of a million 
miners. 

The reindeer is to the far north what 
the camel is to desert regions, the ani- 
mal which God has provided and adapted 
for the peculiar, special conditions which 
exist. The greater the degree of cold, 
the better the reindeer thrives. Last 
winter a party with a reindeer team 
made a day’s journey with the temper- 
ature at 73 degrees below zero. On a 
long journey through an uninhabited 
country a dog team cannot haul suffi- 
cient provisions to feed themselves. A 
deer with 200 pounds on the sled can 
travel up and down the mountains and 


REINDEER 


over the plains without a road or trail 
from one end of Alaska to the other, 
living on the moss found in the country 
where he travels. In the four months’ 
travel of 2,000 miles, from Port Clar- 
ence to the Kuskokwim Valley and 
back, by Mr W. A. Kjellmann and two 
Lapps, with nine sleds, 1896—’ 97, the deer 
were turned out at night to find their 
Own provisions, except upon a stretch 
of the Yukon Valley below Anvik, a 
distance of 40 miles. 

The great mining interests of central 
Alaska cannot realize their fullest de- 
velopment until the domestic reindeer 
are introduced in sufficient numbers to 
do the work of supplying the miners 
with provisions and freight and giving 
the miner speedy communication with 
the outside world. 

The reindeer is equally important to 
the prospector. Prospecting at a dis- 
tance from the base of supplies is now 
impossible. The prospector can go only 
as far as the roo pounds of provisions, 


IN ALASKA 147 


blankets, and tools will last, and then he 
must return. With ten head of rein- 
deer, packing 100 pounds each, making 
half a ton of supplies, he can go for 
months, penetrating regions hundreds 
of miles distant. 


FUTURE OF REINDEER INDUSTRY 


Even if no more reindeer are imported 
from Siberia, if the present rate of in- 
crease continues, doubling every three 
years—and there is no reason why it 
should not—within less than twenty-five 
years there will be at least 1,000,000 
domestic reindeer in Alaska. This is a 
conservative estimate and allows for the 
deer that die from natural causes and for 
the many that will be slaughtered for 
food. In thirty-five years the number 
may reach nearly 10,000,000 head and 
Alaska will be shipping each year to the 
United States anywhere from 500,000 to 
1,000,000 reindeer carcasses and thou- 
sands of tons of delicious hams and 
tongues. At no distant day, it may be 


From a photograph by R. N. Hawley, M. D. 


Formerly the residence of Rev. W. T. Lopp, Congregational Missionary, Cape 


Prince of Wales, Alaska, who for ten years labored at this settlement. 


Now the 


residence of Hugh T. Lee, who in 1895 accompanied Peary on his second advance 
across the Greenland ice cap to Independence Bay. 


148 


safely predicted, long reindeer trains 
from arctic and subarctic Alaska will 
roll into Seattle and our most western 
cities like the great cattle trains that now 
every hour thunder into the yards of 
Chicago. Before the end of the present 
century Alaska will be helping to feed 
the 200,000,000 men and women who 
will then be living within the present 
borders of the United States. 


* REFERENCES: For further information on 
the introduction of domestic reindeer into 
Alaska, consult the annual reports of Sheldon 
Jackson, LL. D., General Agent of Education 
in Alaska, for 1891-1902. The reports contain 
much interesting matter about Alaska as well. 
They may be obtained from the Superintend- 
ent of Public Documents, Washington, D. C., 
for a small sum. 

Special mention may be made of the follow- 
ing articles included in the reports : 

“Domesticated Reindeer, with Notes on the 
Habits and Customs of the Eskimo and Life 


Raleigh Rock—N. E., 3 miles. 


Latitude, 25° 57’ 40’/’ N. 
Longitude, 124° 43’ E. 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


in Arctic Alaska,’’ including many quaint na- 
tive drawings, by Miner W. Bruce, pp. 25-117, 
1893. 

“The Itinerary of 1895’ (describes a tour 
of inspection), by Dr William Hamilton, As- 
sistant General Agent of Education in Alaska, 
pp- 21-41, 1895. 

“Report of Wm. A. Kjellmann Describing 
a Trial Trip of 2,000 Miles with Nine Reindeer 
Sleds,” pp. 41-71, 1897. 

“The Lapland Reindeer Expedition of 1898,’” 
Ppp. 32-46, 1898. 

““Expedition to Siberia,’ by Lieut. E. P- 
Bertholf, describing the purchase of Tunguse 
reindeer in Siberia, pp. 130-168, igor. 

‘Reindeer in Siberia,’ pp. 168-175, Igor. 

Mention should also be made of : 

“The Cruise of the U. S. Revenue Cutter 
Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Re- 
lief of the Whalers in the Arctic Ocean, No- 
vember 27, 1897, to September 13, 1898,”’ in- 
cluding reports of Lieut. D. H. Jarvis, Lieut. 
E.-P. Bertholf, and Surgeon S. J. Call. Goy- 
ernment Printing Office, 1899. 

““Commercial Alaska in 1gor,’’ by O. P. 
Austin, Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Depart- 


ment, pp. 3985-3989. 


RALEIGH ROCK 


HE accompanying photograph of 
Raleigh Rock was taken by Capt. 
J. J. Gilbert, commanding the U. S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer 
Pathfinder, while on a voyage from Japan 
to Manila. Raleigh Rock is in latitude 
25° 57’ 40” N. and longitude 124° 43’ E. 
These rocks have been long known, but 
different names have been assigned to 
them under slightly different geograph- 
ical positions. If the convenient camera 
had been in use in early days as it is 
now, the identity of the rocks would 
easily have been established by ship- 
masters. So far as known, this is the 
first photograph of Raleigh Rock that 
has ever been published. 


Sheldon Jackson, LL D. 


General Agent of Education in Alaska Since 1885 


FUN OUI <I S08, WUC AIDEN, Jae i es 


By E. H. Tuompson, 


U. S. ConsuLt AT PROGRESO, MEXICO 


quen,* was one of the most im- 
portant plants of the peninsula. 

Ata time when most of Europe was 
in the pall of utter darkness, when the 
““ Parisii’’ lived in caves and the Gauls 
in ‘‘ wattled huts,’’ the priests and rulers 
of Yucatan lived in stone temples and 
palaces. Upthe steep sides of the myriad 
pyramids were carried great blocks and 
sculptured columns. 

To move these mighty masses of lime- 
stone no powerful engines were at hand, 
but the Batabs of Yucatan, like the rulers 
of ancient Egypt, had little use for me- 
chanical devices. Human muscle and 
ropes of agave (henequen) were all- 
sufficient. If ten ropes and a hundred 
slaves were not enough, a hundred ropes 
and a thousand slaves were not lacking. 
The ancient artists made use of the fiber 
in their work. They were not content 
to make the figure; they made the 
skeleton, and upon the bones and in the 
flesh, like the cords and muscles of 
the body, they placed cords and plaited 
bands of fiber. Close examination in- 
dicates that the fiber used was that of 
the yaxci plant. Over the imbedded 
muscles and flesh they placed a thin, 
hard wash of stucco to represent the 
skin and surface pigments. The writer 
has examined many dozen specimens of 
the broken figures of stucco wherein 
are plainly shown the casts and the knots 
and braid, even the very character of the 
fiber. 

The primeval inhabitants probably did 
not at first attempt to extract the fiber 


N ancient times the agave, or hene- 


* The fiber is often called Sisal grass or Sisal 
hemp, though it is neither a grass nor a hemp. 
‘The name ‘‘ Sisal’’ was applied to it because it 
originally reached the outer world through the 
port of that name. 


from the thick pulp, but took the leaf 
and wilted it in the fire, then split it, 
and used the splits as thongs. The leaves 
so treated make thongs of great strength, 
and as they dry they bind with wonder- 
ful force. In the primitive forms of 
habitation in the region, the mud and 
wattle ‘‘nds’’ are bound together by 
these shreds of fiber-wilted leaves. They 
are shapely, water-tight, and durable, 
and the native builder’s only tool is a 
heavy, sharp-edged knife. Nota spike 
or nail or metal of any kind enters into 
the building. 

Later the people found that if they 
cleaned off the thick pulp and the green 
corrosive juice they could get a firmer 
hold and so bind tighter. Then they 
learned to twist the shreds, and this idea 
led to the making of ropes and cords. 

Toward the end of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, when there happened to be a 
scarcity of hemp for the cordage of the 
Royal Spanish Navy, search was made 
for a new material to eke out the supply 
from Manila. Some one told of the fiber 
used by the Campeche people in Yuca- 
tan. A royal commission was ordered 
to investigate, and its report, made in 
1783, gave unstinted praise to the fiber. 

For a few years quite a little henequen 
was sent to Europe. Then with the 
collapse of Spanish commerce the de- 
mand for it ceased and for half a century 
its existence seems to have been forgot- 
ten by the world. 

Meanwhile the people of Yucatan 
grew poorer and poorer until, in their 
desperation as to how to get money 
to buy the necessities of life, some 
bright merchants thought of the fibrous 
plant which fifty years before had had 
commercial value. An association was 
formed and they began to experiment 


HeENEQUEN— THE YUCATAN FIBER 


with the plant. A quantity of fiber was 
rudely cleaned by native instruments, 
and, packed in loose bales of about 200 
pounds each, was sent to New York. 
It found a market, but the price was 
such that there was but scant gain for 
theseller. The methods of cleaning the 
fiber were so slow that even with the 
small wages of the day, the cost per 
pound to the planter was discouraging. 
The state government, recognizing the 
great need.of a suitable machine to clean 
the fiber, offered a gratuity of $10,000 
Mexican to the person inventing an ap- 
paratus capable of producing a stated 
output per hour. This finally resulted 
in the ‘‘ raspador,’’ the device of a Fran- 
ciscan friar, which was used for many 
years. 


[51 


The raspador marked a new era for 
the commerce of Yucatan. With the 
aid of this machine, two men could clean 
in one day more than forty could with 
the tonkas and pacché. Its use became 
extended, and henequen farms began 
to multiply and become prosperous. 
Today, half a dozen machines are in the 
market, some of them marvels of design 
and potency. 

The natives of the interior, however, 
still use the ancient, triangular, sharp- 
edged piece of wood called the pacché. 
An able-bodied person can clean with 
the instrument from 6 to 9 pounds of 
fiber aday. The fiber obtained thus 
possesses qualities which that cleaned 
by machines does not have. In the 
hammock-making districts of Yucatan 


From a photograph by E. H. Thompson 


A Wild Variety of Agave Found in the Deep Forests of Yucatan 


it 2 


the leaf is cleaned in the ancient method 
(see illustration on next page), and the 
makers of the finest hammocks, those 
worth their weight in silver, will not use 
a fiber produced by any other method. 


THE AGAVE PLANT 


The agave is one of the most char- 
acteristic plants of Mexico. Oneof the 
family, the dgave americana, produces 
the pulque, the intoxicating drink of 
the country. Great fields are covered 
with this plant upon the Mexican table- 
land, and long ‘‘pulque trains,’’ like 
the milk trains of the United States; 
roll daily into Mexico city. 

This beverage is practically unknown 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


From a photograph by E. H. Thompsou 


A Field of Young Sisal Plants—Two Years Old 


to the inhabitants of Yucatan, and the 
variety that produces it is to be seen 


- only as an exotic in the gardens and 


parks. Its place is taken by another 
member of the family, whose impor- 
tance is more far-reaching. The Agave 
sisalensis furnishes a fiber that not only 
helps to knit firmer the commerce of 
the whole world, but binds the sheaves. 
of wheat so that the price of bread in 
every land is made cheaper for its use. 

To the casual observer a field of the 
pulque plant and one of the fiber plant 
are very similar in appearance. Both 
show the same peculiar green, the same 
many-thorned leaves, but a nearer view 
soon shows the difference. 


From a photograph by E. H. Thompson 


A Native in the Interior Cleaning the Fiber by the Ancient Method 


1 RA Tue NarionaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


From a photograph by E. H. Thompson 


1. Tresses of the Sisal Fiber Cleaned by the Pacché (see page 153). 
2. Pacché. 3 and 4. Native Implements for Cleaning Fiber 


HENEQUEN— I HE YUCATAN FIBER 


There are three known varieties of 
the species growing wild in the forests 
of Yucatan—the chelem, the cahum, 
and the citamci—and I think that I have 
found a fourth wild variety during my 
explorations in the interior. There 
aré also two varieties of the cultivated 
plant—the yaxci or green fiber, and the 
sacci or white fiber. “The last-named 
plant is the most cultivated and the one 
producing the sisal hemp, or henequen, 
of commerce. 


CULTIVATION 


A thin, rocky limestone soil is gen- 
erally supposed to be the best for the 
growth of the sacci plant. Experience 
indicates that the fiber grown upon this 
class of soil has a percentage of tensile 
strength greater than that produced on 
the richer lands, though the last is more 
flexible and is longer. The percentage 
of safety allowed by the cordage-makers 
is so high that I doubt if the diminished 
tensile strength of the rich-land hemp 
would seriously affect the quality of the 
output. Contrary to the general idea, 
a poor sandy soil is not congenial to the 


U5S 


growth of a large, full-sized fiber plant. 
Few, if any, good-sized, well-formed 
plants grow very near the coast line. 
The best Yucatan fiber plant seems to 
be produced in a zone or belt following 
the coast, about 12 miles away from it 
and 70 miles wide. 

The plant can be propagated in va- 
rious ways—by seeds, by cuttings, and 
by scions or suckers. ‘The first-men- 
tioned method is now never undertaken. 
Very few of the abundant seeds are fer- 
tile, and the time lost in raising the seed- 
lingsis great. The second method—by 
cuttings—is frequently undertaken ; the 
top of an old, nearly worn-out plant is 
taken just before the long pole that 
should bear the flowers shoots up. It 
is cut off and trimmed of all save 
the newest leaves, and then planted in 
the ground as though it were a scion. 
These plants are said to produce earlier 
than others. 

The general method, however, of pro- 
ducing a field of the sisal plant is as fol- 
lows: A field is cut and the refuse 
burned ; then a month or so before the 
rainy season the ‘‘hijos,’’ or scions of 


From a photograph by E. H. Thompson 


Drying Sisal Fiber at One of the Large Plantations—Yucatan 


16@ Wien, 


NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MaGAZINE 


From a photograph by E. H. ‘thompson 


Bales of Sisal Fiber Ready for Shipment 


sisal, that have sprouted under the 
‘shelter of the parent plant,are rooted out 
of the ground when they get to be 18 
-or 20 inches high, and thrown in a heap. 
There they lie for two or three months 
exposed to the sun and the weather. 
Just before the rainy season, when they 
seem to be dried up and decayed, they 
are carried to the cleared fields and 
planted in rows. Formerly they so 
planted the young plants that they 
were separated by spaces of barely 2 
yards, but of late years it has been 
found best to space them so that they 
will be in lines, each plant separated 
from the one preceding it by a space 
of 1% yards and the lines 4 yards apart 
(about 1,100 plants to the acre). Thus, 
long and wide lanes are formed between 


the rows that facilitate cutting and car- 
riage of the leaves, and also lessen the 
wounding of the leaves by the spines 
and thorns of their neighbors. 

Previous to 1889 but little attempt 
was made to grade the hemp. Yaxci, 
sacci, short staple, long staple—all went 
as ‘‘sisal.’’ Now, a fine, white fiber, 
well cleaned and baled, can command a 
notably better price than mixed fiber, 
ill-cleaned and badly baled. 

The hope of the future is in the care- 
ful selection of hemp plants. Many 
plantations, more by good fortune than 
otherwise, are stocked with fiber-pro- 
ducing plants of a high order; others 
are handicapped by plants producing 
ameager fiber. The quality of the soil 
in both casesseems to be the same; the 


HeENEQUEN— THE YUCATAN FIBER 


difference is in the class of plants. This 
phase is a comparatively new one on 
the plantations of Yucatan fiber and has 
only recently been taken into serious 
consideration. 

The scion when planted (‘‘anchored”’ 
would perhaps be the better word, as it 
is more often held by heavy stones than 
by the earth around it), needs no special 
care or irrigation. Once or twice a 
season the fields are roughly weeded. 
The plant thrives, and generally in 
about five years the earlier leaves com- 
mence to extend themselves laterally at 
right angles to the trunk of the plant. 
This is nature’s signal that the fiber 
has reached its highest point of tensile 
strength and that the leaves are ready 
to be cut. The native cutters then 
throng the field, and with their corbas 
deftly cut the leaves close to the trunk, 
trim off each line of side thorns at a 
single stroke, snip off the horny end, 
and bind up the leaves in bundles. Tram 
cars take these bundles and carry them 
to the cleaning machine. 


THE ENEMIES OF THE PLANT 


Fire is its greatest enemy. Hot sea- 
sons do not affect it. In fact, the heat 
of the sun, especially when accompanied 
by dampness, seems to act as a tonic. 
It is then, if ever, that the plant re- 
covers from its injuries. The greatest 
heat experienced in Yucatan for the 
last ten years was in July, 1900, when 
the thermometer reached 119° F. in the 
half shade of a veranda; 147° F. has 
been experienced in the sun on the 
principal street of Merida. Long 
droughts may delay its development, 
and by wilting the mature leaves cause 
them to double and injure the fiber, but 
it cannot stop the ultimate growth of 
the healthy plant, once it is well rooted. 
Rainy seasons do not seriously affect 
the plants, except those in stagnant 
water. This weakens the plant, but 
this condition is not common. Cold 
seasons of the kind that Yucatan ex- 


15) 


periences do not seriously affect. the 
plant. The coldest known period was in 
February, 1899, when the thermometer 
registered 47° F. 

But fire conquers it. Let a spark 
from a locomotive, the lighted end of a 
cigarette, or the embers of a fire made 
to heat the bread of the native workers 
start the flames in an ill-cleaned field, 
and nothing but a miracle can save the 
crop from total loss. It is said that 
some planters in the past have taken 
advantage of the susceptibility of the 
plant to artificial heat, and when young 
plants were desired for export, they 
were doctored before delivery by having 
their roots heated over heated embers 
or dipped into boiling water. The effects 
of this treatment are not perceptible for 
a time, and possibly this fact may make 
clear tosome enthusiastic foreign planter 
why his scions, purchased with so much 
care and expense, never grew and pros- 
pered. Naturally, the Mexicans do not 
desire to have the plant that is such a 
valuable product of their country made 
common. 

Next to fire, a large, long-nosed black 
beetle is the greatest enemy of the cul- 
tivated sisal. It is known to the natives 
as the ‘‘max.’’ DrGaumer, an Ameri- 
can physician residing in Yucatan, 
whose studies and writings upon the 
fauna and flora of Yucatan have made 
his name familiar to naturalists every- 
where, at my request writes of the 
insect: 

“The female insect lays its eggs on 
the trunk of the henequen plant a few 
inches above the ground. When batched 
the larva burrows into and through the 
outer bark to the harder fiber of the 
interior, when it generally takes an up- 
ward direction and burrows from 6 to 
12 inches during its larval existence. 
When full grown it works its way to 
the bark, where it changes to a pupa 
and so remains for some months, when 
it hatches into the adult beetle and 
emerges from the plant, which it leaves 


158 


injured and weakened, but rarely kills. 
‘Three or more larvee in the same plant 
will surely destroy it, but that number 
is of very rare occurrence.”’ 

The life of the plant can be greatly 
prolonged. I have seen fields old at 10 
years, and others vigorous and hearty 
at 19 years. ‘The plants should be 
originally healthy scions, the leaves 
must be cut at just the right time, and 
the long pole must be nipped off before 
it has become more than a mere pro- 
tuberance. Once the pole has grown, 
the plant ages rapidly. 


VALUE OF HENEQUEN 


The export of henequen is making 
Yucatan one of the richest states of Mex- 
ico. In 1902 the state sent out nearly 


IA IRIGY (Quer I sts, 


Tue Nationa GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


six hundred thousand bales, or ninety 
thousand tons, worth $14,000,000. Most 
of it went to the United States, where 
it is used for sacking, cordage, and 
binders’ twine. 

There will be a falling off in the sup- 
ply for the season of 1903. “The causes 
of this diminishing output, despite the 
high prices that prevail, will be the de- 
creasing acreage of new fields. La- 
borers are scarce, and the great ma- 
jority of planters dislike to stop clean- 
ing fiber long enough to plant new 
fields or replant old ones. * 


* For the illustrations that accompany this 
article the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 
is indebted to Hon. Frederic Emory, Chief of 
the Bureau of Foreign Commerce, State De- 
partment. 


ERUPTION OF ie 


SOUPRIERE OF ST VINGEN DS 1812 


From THE EvEenING News oF JUNE 30, 1812 * 


HE Soufriére mountain, the 
most northerly of the lofty 
chain running through the 

center of this island, and the highest of 
the whole, as computed by the most 
accurate survey that has yet been taken, 
had for some time past indicated much 
disquietude ; and from the extraordi- 
nary frequency and violence of earth- 
quakes, which are calculated to have 
exceeded 200 within the last year, por- 
tended some great movement or erup- 
tion. ‘The apprehension, however, was 
not so immediate as to restrain curios- 
ity, or to prevent frequent visits to the 
crater, which of late had been more 
numerous than at any former period, 


even up to Sunday last, the 26th of 
April, when some gentlemen ascended 
it, and remained there for some time. 
Nothing unusual was then remarked, 
or any external difference observed, ex- 
cept rather a stronger emission of smoke 
from the interstices of the conical hill 
at the bottom of the crater. To those 
who have not visited this romantic and 
wonderful spot, a slight description, as 
it lately stood, is previously necessary 
and indispensable to form any concep- 
tion of it and to the better understand- 
ing the account which follows, for no 
one living can expect to see it again in 
the perfection and beauty in which it 
was on Sunday, the 26th instant. About 


* This account has been copied from the reprint of the original article as published in ‘“‘An 


Account of the Eruptions of the Saint Vincent Soufriére,’’ by P. Foster Huggins. 


The account 


is of the highest interest and value as showing the exact parallelism between the eruptions of 


1812 and 1902. 


The ‘‘lava’’ streams mentioned here were mud flows. 


Mr Huggins’ pamphlet 


was printed at the 77mes printing office, Kingstown, St Vincent, July, 1902.—E. O. Hovey. 


ERUPTION OF THE 


2,000 feet from the level of the sea (cal- 
culating from conjecture on the south 
side of the mountain) and rather more 
than two-thirds of its height, opens a 
circular chasm, somewhat excee jing 
half a mile in diameter and between 400 
or 500 feet in depth. Exactly in the 
center of this capacious bowl rose a 
conical hill about 260 or 300 feet in 
height, and about 200 in diameter, 
richly covered and variegated with 
shrubs, brushwood, and vines about 
half way up, and for the remainder 
powdered over with virgin sulphur at 
the top. From the fissure in the cone 
and interstices of the rocks, athin white 
smoke was constantly emitted, occasion- 
ally tinged with a slight bluish flame. 
The precipitous sides of this magnifi- 
cent amphitheater were fringed with 
various evergreens and aromatic shrubs, 
flowers, and many Alpine plants. On 
the north and south sides of the base 
of the cone were two pieces of water, 
one perfectly pure and tasteless, the 
other strongly impregnated with sul- 
phur and alum. This lonely and beau- 
tiful spot was rendered more enchanting 
by the singularly melodious notes of a 
bird, an inhabitant of those upper soli- 
tudes, and altogether unknown to the 
other parts of the island; hence princi- 
pally called or supposed to be invisi- 
ble, though it certainly has been seen, 
and is a species of the merle. A cen- 
tury had now elapsed since the last con- 
vulsion of the mountain, or since any, 
other elements had disturbed the seren- 
ity of this wilderness, than those which 
are common to the tropical tempest. It 
apparently slumbered in primeval soli- 
tude and tranquillity, and from the 
luxuriant vegetation and growth of the 
forest which covered its sides from the 
base nearly to the summit, seemed to 
discountenance the face and falsify the 
records of the ancient volcano. Such 
was the majestic, peaceful Soufriére of 
April 27th ; but we trod on izgnes sup- 
positos cineri doloso, and our imaginary 


SOUFRIERE, 1812 


7 Og) 


safety was soon to be confounded by 
the sudden danger of devastation. 

Just as the plantation bells rang twelve 
at noon, on Monday, the 27th, an abrupt 
and dreadful crash from the mountain, 
with a severe concussion of the earth 
and tremulous noise in the air, alarmed 
all around it. ‘The resurrection of this 
fiery furnace was proclaimed in a mo- 
ment by a vast column of thick, black, 
ropy smoke, like that of an immense 
glass house, bursting forth at once, and 
mounting to the sky, showering down 
sand with gritty, calcined particles of 
earth and favilla mixed, on all below. 
This, driven before the wind towards 
Wallibou and Morne Ronde, darkened 
the air like a cataract of rain, and cov- 
ered the ridges, woods, and canepieces 
with light, gray-colored ashes, resem- 
bled snow when slightly covered by 
dust. As the eruption increased, this 
continued shower expanded, destroying 
every appearance of vegetation. At 
night a very considerable degree of ig- 
nition was observed on the lips of the 
crater, but it is not asserted that there 
was as yet any visible ascension of 
flame. The same awful scene presented 
itself on Tuesday, the fallof favilla and 
calcined pebbles still increasing, and 
the compact, pitchy column from the cra- 
ter rising perpendicularly to an immense 
height with a noise at intervals like 
the muttering of distant thunder. On 
Wednesday, the 29th, all these menac- 
ing symptoms of horror and combustion 
still gathered more thick and terrific for 
miles around the dismal and _half-ob- 
scured mountain. The prodigious col- 
umn shot up with quicker motion, di- 
lating as it rose like a balloon. ‘The 
sun appeared in total eclipse, and shed 
a meridian twilight over us that aggra- 
vated the wintry gloom of the scene now 
completely powdered over with falling 
particles. It was evident that the crisis 
was yet tocome; that the burning fluid 
was struggling for a vent, and laboring 
to throw off the superincumbent strata 


160 


and obstructions which suppressed the 
ignivomous torrent. At night it was 
manifest that it had greatly disengaged 
itself fromits burden by the appearance 
of fire flashing now and then, flaking 
above the mouth of the crater. 

On Thursday, the memorable 30th of 
April, the reflection of the rising sun 
on this majestic body of curling vapor 
was sublime beyond imagination. Any 
comparison of the glaciers of the Andes 
or Cordilleras with it can but feebly 
convey an idea of the fleecy whiteness 
and brilliancy of this awful column of 
intermingled and wreathed smoke and 
clouds. It afterwards assumed a more 
sulphureous cast, like what we call 
thunder clouds, and in the course of 
the day a ferruginous and sanguine 
appearance with much livelier action 
in the ascent, a more extensive dilation, 
as if almost freed from every obstruc- 
tion. After noon the noise was inces- 
sant and resembled the approach of 
thunder, still nearer and nearer, with 
a vibration that affected the feelings 
and hearing; as yet there was no con- 
vulsive motion or sensible earthquake. 
Terror and consternation now seized 
all beholders. The Caribs, settled at 
Morne Ronde at the foot of the Sou- 
friére, abandoned their homes with their 
live stock and everything they pos- 
sessed, and fled precipitately towards 
the town. ‘The negroes became con- 
fused, forsook their work, looked up to 
the mountain, and, as it shook, trem- 
bled with dread of what they could 
neither understand nor describe; the 
birds fell to the ground, overpowered 
with the showers of favilla, unable to 
keep themselves on the wing ; the cattle 
were starving for want of food, as not 
a blade of grass or a leaf was now to be 
found ; the sea was much discolored, 
but in nowise uncommonly agitated, 
and it is remarkable that throughout 
the whole of the violent disturbance of 
the earth it continued quite passive, 
and did not at any time sympathize 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


with the agitation of the land. About 
4 o'clock p. m. the noise became more 
alarming, and just before sunset the 
clouds reflected a bright copper color, 
suffused with fire. Scarcely had the day 
closed when the flame burst at length 
pyramidically from the crater through 
the mass of smoke; the rolling of the 
thunder became more awful and deafen- 
ing ; electric flashes quickly succeeded, 
attended with loud claps, and nowindeed 
the hurly-burlybegan. ‘Those only who 
have witnessed such a sight can formany 
idea of the magnificence and variety of 
the lightning and electric flashes ; some 
forked zigzag playing across the perpen- 
dicular column from the crater, others 
shooting upwards from the mouth-like 
rockets of the most dazzling luster, 
others like shells with their trailing 
fuses flying in different parabolas, with 
most vivid scintillations from the dark, 
sanguine column which now seemed in- 
flexible and immovable by the wind. 
Shortly after 7 o’clock p. m. the 
mighty cauldron was seen to simmer, 
and the ebullition of lava to break out 
on the northwest side. This, imme- 
diately after boiling over the orifice 
and flowing a short way, was opposed 
by the activity of a higher point of 
land, over which it was impelled by the 
immense tide of liquefied fire, that drove 
it on forming the figure V in grand il- 
lumination. Sometimes when the ebul- 
lition slackened, or was insufficient to 
urge it over the obstructing hill, it re- 
coiled back, like a refluent billow from 
the rock, and then again rushed for- 
ward, impelled by fresh surprise, and 
scaling every obstacle, carrying rocks 
and woods together in its course down 
the slope of the mountain, until it pre- 
cipitated itself down some vast ravine 
concealed from our sight by the inter- 
vening ridges of Morne Ronde. Vast 
globular bodies of fire were seen pro- 
jected from the fiery furnace, and burst- 
ing, fell back into it, or over it, on the sur- 
rounding bushes, which were instantly 


GeocraPHic Nores 


setin flames. About four hours from the 
lava boiling over the crater it reached 
the sea, as we could observe from the 
reflection of the fire and the electric 
flashes which attended it. 

About half-past one another stream 
of lava was seen descending to the east- 
ward towards Rabacca. ‘The thunder- 
ing noise of the mountain and the vibra- 
tion of sound that had been so formid- 
able hitherto now mingled in the sullen 
monotonous roar of the rolling lava, be- 
came so terrible that dismay was almost 
turned into despair. At this time the 
first earthquake was felt. This was fol- 
lowed by showers of cinders that fell 
with the hissing noise of hail during 
two hours. At three o’clock a rolling 
on the roofs of the houses indicated a 
fall of stones, which soon thickened 
and at length descended in a rain of in- 
termingled fire that threatened at once 
the fate of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
The crackling and coruscations from 
the crater at this period exceeded all 
that had yet passed. The eyes were 
struck with momentary blindness, and 
the ears stunned with the glomeration 
of sounds. People sought shelter in 
cellars, under rocks, or anywhere, for 
everywhere was nearly the same, and 
the miserable negroes, flying from their 
huts, were knocked down or wounded 
and many killed in the open air. Sev- 


161 


eral houses were set on fire. ‘The es- 
tates situated in the immediate vicinity 
seemed doomed to destruction. Had 
the stones that fell been proportionally 
heavy to the size, not a living creature 
could have escaped without death. 
These having undergone a thorough 
fusion, they were divested of their natu- 
ral gravity, and fell almost as light as 
pumex, though in some places as large 
as aman’shead. ‘This dreadful rain of 
stones and fire lasted upwards of an hour, 
and was again succeeded by cinders 
from three till six o’clock in the morn- 
ing. Earthquake followed earthquake 
almost momentarily, or rather the whole 
of this part of this island was in a state 
of continued oscillation, not agitated 
by shocks vertical or horizontal, but 
undulated like water shaken in a bowl. 
The break of day, if such it would be 
called, was truly terrific. Darkness was 
only visible at eight o’clock, and the 
birth of May dawned like the day of 
judgment. A chaotic gloom enveloped 
the mountain and an impenetrable haze 
hung over the sea, with black sluggish 
clouds of asulphureous cast. The whole 
island was covered with favilla, cinders, 
scoria, and broken masses of volcanic 
matter. It was not until the afternoon 
the muttering noise of the mountain 
sunk gradually into a solemn yet sus- 
picious silence. 


GEOGRAPHIG NOTES 


EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WRAN- 
GELL MOUNTAINS, ALASKA 


ESSRS T. G. Gerdine and D.C. 
Witherspoon, of the U. S. Geo- 

logical Survey, as one of the results of 
their topographic work in the Copper 
River basin, Alaska, during the seasons 
of 1900 and 1902, have developed some 
most interesting facts concerning a great 
group of peaks called the Wrangell 


Mountains, whose slopes are drained by 
tributaries of the Copper, the Tanana, 
and the White rivers. The western 
end of this group was located roughly 
by Lieut. Allen in 1885, in connection 
with his reconnaissance through central 
Alaska, and his descriptions gave the 
first conception of the altitude and im- 
portance of the group. 

Messrs Gerdineand Witherspoon, how- 
ever, have mapped accurately and in 


162 


detail the entire range. They have de- 
termined incidentally that it includes 
at least eight peaks, with altitudes 
of 12,000 feet or more, and several 
other summits which rise to above 
10,000 feet. Two of these peaks, Mount 
Blackburn and Mount Sanford, are over 
16,000 feet in height, but the most in- 
teresting of all is perhaps the active 
volcano, Mount Wrangell, 14,000 feet 
high. ‘This peak is a great, flat vol- 
canic dome, whose crater near the sum- 
mit is 8,000 feet above the line of per- 
petualsnow. At irregular but frequent 
intervals, puffs of steam and smoke, 
with showers of fine cinder, issue from 
this crater, and as a result many of the 
glaciers flowing from its southwestern 
slope are black with the included soot 
and ask instead of being clear blue, like 
glacial ice generally. 

Detailed topographic maps, showing 
the location, relative positions, forms, 
and altitudes of the various veaks of 
the range, are in course of preparation 
and will be issued soon with geologic 
reports of the region. A table of alti- 
tudes of a few of the highest peaks is 
presented : 


Witte Sarevi@rGl. 6 ooccp sco 0000 16,208 
MtpBlackiburnheneeermcies 16,140 
Mt Wrangell............ 14,005 
Wie REGAN. Se baGo00e 56 13,400 
3 MEGHAN. ba0o0800000000c 12,230 
Wille OVA ooodbcoss00008 12,0v2 


SCOTTISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 


HE Chief of the U. S. Weather 
Bureau has just received a letter 

from the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 
dated January 24th at the Falkland 
Islands, acknowledging the receipt of 
assistance from the Weather Bureau. 
The writer, Mr R. C. Mossman, meteor- 
ologist to the expedition, states: ‘‘ We 
leave here tomorrow on the Antarctic 


*Named for Lieut. David H. Jarvis, Col- 
lector of Customs, Sitka, Alaska, and leader 
of the Point Barrow overland expedition of 
1897-’98. 


Tue Nationa GrocraPHic MaGaZIne 


ship Scotia for the Weddell Sea,* push- 
ing south along the 30th parallel of 
west longitude and wintering in the ice. 
We do not expect to return here before 
February or March of next year (1904)- 
I hope to be able to contribute some- 
thing to the United States Monthly 
Weather Review. We shall concentrate 
on kite work as much as circumstances 
permit, as we have a complete outfit of 
meteorographs, kites, etc., on board. 
(This outfit is modeled after that of 
the U. S. Weather Bureau.) There is, 
we believe, some possibility of losing a 
record by the freezing of the ink, as 
we have not the newly invented ink 
containing tonsol.”’ 


SURVEY OF THE GRAND CANYON 


HE demand from scientists and 
tourists for an accurate and de- 
tailed map of the famous Grand Canyon 
of the Colorado has led to a resurvey of 
this region by the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey, under the charge of Fran- 
cois E. Matthes, topographer. The 
Grand Canyon, formerly reached only 
by a stage route over a desert country, 
has recently been made accessible by a 
branch line from Williams, and during 
the one year that this road has been in 
operation the canyon has been visited 
by thousands of tourists. 
The survey plans to publish a series 
of atlas sheets covering the entire ex- 
tent of the Grand Canyon proper and 


* The Weddell Sea, so named after Captain 
James Weddell, who made numerous sealing 
voyages and wrote on the possibility of reach- 
ing the South Pole According to the eminent 
geographer, E. S. Balch, of Philadelphia, in 
his latest book, ‘‘ Antarctica,’’ Weddell Sea 
was originally called George the Fourth’s Sea 
by Captain Weddell. He sailed over it in 
1823 and found not a particle of ice, and he 
thought it a portion of the Antarctic Polar 
Sea. It probably represents only the southern 
end of the Atlantic Ocean, between the merid- 
jan of Greenwich and longitude 60° W. Ac- 
cording to Weddell’s voyage, this region was. 
all open water as far south as latitude 757 
south. 


GeocraPHic Noress 


considerable areas of the high plateaus 
oneitherside. The first of these sheets, 
known as the Bright Angel, will be 
available to the public some time this 
summer. It includes almost all of the 
scenery visible from the Bright Angel 
Hotel, familiar to every visitor. The 
new map will be on a scale of one mile 
to the inch, and the contour interval 
will be 50 feet. It will show every pin- 
nacle, spur, and gully in its true pro- 
portions, and each line of cliff and 
terrace may be traced along the canyon 
walls. 

The dimensions of the Grand Canyon 
have been the subject of much discus- 
sion ever Since it was first explored. It 
is therefore interesting to see some of 
the figures of this latest survey. The 
average width from rim to rim does not 
exceed 1o miles throughout the Kaibab, 
or widest section of the canyon, and 
frequently narrows down to 8 miles. 
The river does not occupy the middle 
of the gigantic trough, but flows at a 
distance varying between 1 and 3 miles 
from the south side. Practically all of 
the magnificently sculptured pinnacles 
and mesas (the so-called temples) lie 
north of the river, and at distances of 
from 5 to 7 miles from the view-points 
usually visited by tourists. The depth 
of the Grand Canyon, in one way, has 
been overstated, in another understated. 
Measured from the south rim, the total 
depth is considerably less than a mile. 
From the rim at the Bright Angel Hotel, 
where the altitude is 6,866 feet above 
sea-level, to the high-water mark of the 
river at the foot of the tourist rail, the 
drop is 4,430 feet. The highest point 
on the south rim at the Grand View 
Hotel is 7,496 feet, about 4,900 feet 
above the river. From the north side, 
however, the drop to the water level 
averages considerably over a mile, and 
in many places even exceeds 6,000 feet. 
It may be stated in a general way that 
the north rim is from 1,000 to 1,200 
feet higher than the south, thus pro- 


163 


ducing that high, even skyline so strik- 
ing in all views. These figures are 
based on spirit-levels run in connection 
with the map work. ‘They are the first 
that have ever been run to the bottom 
of the ‘chasm, and the high standard of 
accuracy maintained throughout will 
cause them to be considered authorita- 
tive and final. 


GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF 
CHICAGO 


HE University of Chicago has 
established a Department of 
Geography, and Prof. Rollin D. Sal- 
isbury, of the Department of Geology, 
has been placed at its head. ‘The ar- 
rangement between the Departments of 
Geology and Geography is such that 
Professor Salisbury retains his connec- 
tion with the former, as heretofore, at 
the same time that he assumes the head- 
ship of the latter. The close connection 
of the two departments appears from the 
fact that Professor Salisbury will also 
act as head of the Department of Geology 
when Professor Chamberlin is not in 
residence, and Professor Chamberlin 
will act as head of the Department of 
Geography in Professor Salisbury’s ab- 
sence. 

The Department of Geology has here- 
tofore offered courses, both elementary 
and advanced, in physical geography, 
and elementary courses in meteorology. 
Other courses of a geographic character 
have been offered by other departments, 
notably geographic botany by the De- 
partment of Botany, zoogeography by 
the Department of Zoology, and com- 
mercial geography by the Department 
of Political Economy. ‘These courses 
will continue to be given as heretofore 
by these several departments, except 
that meteorology will be under the au- 
spices of the new department. The new 
department will not duplicate the geo- 
graphic courses already given, but will, 
at the outset, provide courses which 


164 


supplement those already established. 
The immediate aim of the new depart- 
ment will be to occupy the ground in- 
termediate between geology and clima- 
tology, on the one hand, and history, 
sociology, political economy, and biol- 
ogy, on the other. The courses offered 
at the outset will be those for which, 
within this field, there is greatest de- 
mand. 

John Paul Goode, Ph. D., in charge of 
the work of geography in the Wharton 
School in the University of Pennsyl- 
vania, has accepted an assistant pro- 
fessorship in the Department of Geog- 
raphy, and will begin his work the 
second term of the summer quarter 
(July 27, 1903). Noother appointment 
will be made this year. During his first 
year Dr Goode will be in residence dur- 
ing the second term ‘of the summer 
quarter, and during the autumn and 
spring quarters. ‘The courses which he 
will give during the first year will in- 
clude courses on the economic geography 
of (1) North America, (2) Europe, and 
(3) tropical countries. The central 
theme of these courses will be the influ- 
ence of the physiography, the climate, 
and the natural resources of these lands 
on their settlement, development, and 
present commercial and industrial status. 
Research courses will also be offered for 
advanced students. 

The geographic work of the univer- 
sity during the coming year will include 
the following courses, in’ addition to 
those given in the Department of Geog- 
raphy : 

I. In the Department of Geology. 
I, an elementary course in physiog- 
raphy each quarter ; 2, a local field and 
laboratory course, first term, summer 
quarter ; 3, two field coursesin geology 
and geography about Devils Lake and 
the Dells of the Wisconsin, in Wiscon- 
sin, one month each, commencing June 
18 and July 27 respectively; 4, a course 
in advanced physiography, autumn 
quarter ; 5, a field course (for advanced 


Tse Nationa GrocraPpHic MaGAZzIne 


students) in the Wasatch Mountains of 
Utah and vicinity. 

Other courses which, while primarily 
geological, are fundamental to the proper 
conception of the evolution of the present 
geography of the continents, will also be 
given in this department. 

Il. In the Yepartment of Zoology.— 
Courses in zoogeography, summer and 
spring quarters. 

Ill. In the Department of Botany.— 
I, an elementary course in plant geog- 
raphy (time not announced) ; 2, an ele- 
mentary course in ecology, summer and 
spring quarters ; 3, elementary and ad- 
vanced courses in field botany, summer 
and spring quarters; 4, advanced courses 
in geographic botany, winter quarter ; 
5, a course in physiographic ecology, 
summer and spring quarters. 

IV. In the Department of Political 
Economy.—Courses in commercial geog- 
raphy, summer, autumn, and winter 
quarters. 

School of Education.—In addition to 
the foregoing, courses in geography will 
be given by Miss Baber in the School of 
Education (the Normal Department of 
the University). These courses are 
planned primarily with reference to the 
needs of teachers in the grades. Miss 
Baber will also conduct a field course of 
one month’s duration during the second 
term of the summer quarter, beginning 
July 27. 


THE ASCENT OF MT EVEREST 


SERIOUS attempt is about to be 

made, writes Herbert C. Fyfe in 

the Screntific American, to ascend the 

highest mountain in the world, Mt Ev- 

erest, which rears itsstately head 29,002 
feet above the level of the sea. 

The highest point to which man has 
so far climbed is 23,080 feet. This is 
the height of Aconcagua, the loftiest 
summit of the main cordillera of the 
Andes. Aconcagua was scaled by the 
famous guide, Mathias Zurbrigger, and 


GeocraPHic Norss 


Mr Vines, two members of the expedi- 
tion sent out by the Royal Geographical 
Society in 1887 under Mr E. A. Fitzger- 
ald, who himself failed to reach the sum- 
mit. Before this event the record was 
held by Sir William Martin Conway’s 
expedition, which in 1892 climbed a 
mountain in the Karakoram Himalayas 
22,600 feet high. Mr W. Graham in 
1883 claimed to have ascended Kabru 
(24 of5 feet), but his claim is generally 
disallowed. The new expedition, which 
has just started for the Himalayas, is 
under the direction of Mr Eckenstein. 
Very few details regarding the plan of 
operations can be ascertained, but it is 
known that Mr Eckenstein and his com- 
panions have set before themselves the 
task of ascending to the loftiest peak of 
the two highest mountains not only in 
the Himalayas, but also in the world, 
Mt Everest (29,002 feet) and ‘‘K 2”’ 
(28,250 feet). 

There is nothing impossible in scaling 
Mt Everest. Two things are wanted, 
time and money; and provided these 
are forthcoming, success may very well 
be looked for. 

Most of the great climbers of today 
agree in affirming that man could exist 
at an altitude of 29,000 feet, provided 
of course that careful precautions were 
taken and that all the details of the ex- 
pedition were worked out in a thor- 
oughly practical manner. The climber 
must not attempt to ascend Mt Everest 
right off. He will have to take some 
years over it, climbing each year toa 
certain height and resting weeks here 
and there of the road in order to accus- 
tom his body to the unwonted altitudes. 
Supplies will be a great problem, but if 
he can manage to insure food, clothing, 
and other necessaries reaching him at 
the various camps at which he will be 
forced to remain for some little time, and 
if he is strong enough to withstand the 
cold and the rarefied atmosphere, it is 
possible that one day his ambition will 
be satisfied and that he will be able to 
take his stand on the highest point of 


165 


the earth’s surface and to rejoice in the 
fact that he has accomplished something 
which no one else has ever done since 
the world began. 


IRRIGATION PLANS IN FIVE STATES 


CECRETARY HITCHCOCK, of the 
Department of the Interior, on the 
recommendation of the Director of the 
Geological Survey, has granted author- 
ity for the acquisition of necessary prop- 
erty, rights of way, etc., preliminary to 
the construction of irrigation works in 
five localities under authority of the 
reclamation act approved June 17, 1902. 
The construction is, of course, condi- 
tional on the department obtaining the 
necessary rights and adjusting private 
claims in such manner as to comply with 
the provisions of the act. The five pro- 
jects referred to are as follows: 

Wyoming—Sweetwater dam. 

Montana— Milk River project. 

Colorado—Gunnison tunnel. 

Nevada—Truckee project. 

Arizona—Salt River reservoir. 

These projects are estimated to cost 
$7,000,000 and will provide for the irri- 
gation of about 600,000 acres of arid 
land. ‘The examinations of all these 
projects have been made in sufficient 
detail to justify estimates of cost and 
results. Several other projects in other 
states are well advanced, and it is ex- 
pected that further recommendations 
can be made after the close of the com- 
ing field season. 

The Secretary has also authorized the 
expenditure during the present calendar 
year of $450,000 upon surveys, borings 
for foundations, and other examinations 
which will be carried on in all of the 
states and territories included within the 
provisions of the law. ‘There is now in 
the Treasury about ten million dollars 
obtained by the sale of public lands since 
July 1, 1900, and available for the rec- 
lamation of arid lands in the thirteen 
states and territories named in the rec- 
lamation law. 


166 


INTERNAL COMMERCE OF THE 
UNITED STATES 


HE internal commerce of the United 
States for 1902 reached twenty 
billions of dollars, or, in other words, 
equaled the entire international com- 
merce of the world. ‘This is the grati- 
fying estimate of the Treasury Bureau 
of Statistics, whose duty it is to gather 
the facts and figures of our enormous 
internal trade. Hon. O. P. Austin 
states that in arriving at this estimate of 
$20,000,000,000 for the internal com- 
merce of the United States, the Bureau 
includes only one transaction in each 
article produced, while in fact a very 
large number of the articles produced 
pass through the hands of several ‘‘ mid- 
dlemen’’ between those of the producer 
and those of the consumer. ‘The esti- 
mate is based upon the figures of the 
census, which put the total value of 
manufacturesin 1900 at $1 3,000,000,000, 
those of agriculture at nearly $4,000, - 
000,000, and those of minerals about 
$1,000,000,000. Adding to these the 
product of the fisheries, the total value 
of the products of the great industries 
in 1900 would be eighteen billions of 
dollars, and the rapid growth in all lines 
of industry since 1900, especially in 
manufacturing, seems to justify the con- 
clusion that even a single transaction in 
all the products of the country would 
produce an aggregate for 1902 of fully 
twenty billions of dollars. Our internal 
commerce was ten times larger in 1902 
than in 1850, while our population was 
only three and one-half times as great. 


RECLAMATION IN WYOMING AND 
COLORADO 


R FRED BOND, state engineer 
of Wyoming, in his latest offi- 
cial report describes some experiments 


being made in Colorado and Wyoming 


to grow wheat without irrigation. 
In 1886 Mr Robert Gauss advanced 
the theory that wheat could be acclima- 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MaGaAZzINE 


tized and made to thrive under the arid 
conditions of Colorado, and some years 
later began conducting experiments to 
test his theory. In 1896 he planted 
some improved Fife wheat, but secured 
at harvesting time but little more than 
seed enough for the following year. 
This seed was planted and the experi- 
ment continued each year with better 
and better results. In the spring of 
1902 Mr Bond obtained a pint of this 
seed and planted one-half near Chey- 
enne at an altitude of 6,050 feet above 
sea-level, and the remainder near Buf- 
falo, Johnson county, at an altitude of 
4,700 feet. From the harvest of the 
first lot Mr Bond obtained 9% pints, a 
yield of nineteenfold, and from the sec- 
ond lot 21% pints, or about forty-three- 
fold, although there had been no irri- 
gation of either lot. The effective 
precipitation at Cheyenne had been 6.38 
inches and at Buffalo 4.90 inches. 

If experiments on a larger scale are 
equally successful, if as good wheat 
and as great results are obtained in 
practical farming, Mr Gauss has re- 
claimed an area of nearly 400,000 
square miles, stretching from the south- 
ern boundary of Kansas and Colorado 
to the Canadian boundary. 


DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND 
LABOR 


HIS new department, after June 
30, 1903, will include the follow- 
ing bureaus: 
Bureau of Statistics; 
Coast and Geodetic Survey; 
Bureau of Immigration; 
Bureau of Navigation; 
Light-House Board and Establish- 
ment; 
Steamboat Inspection Service; 
U. S. Shipping Commission; 
National Bureau of Standards, trans- 
ferred from the Treasury Department; 
Census Office, transferred from the 
Interior Department; 


GerocraPHic. Nores 


Bureau of Foreign Commerce, trans- 
ferred from the State Department; 

The unattached bureaus of the Fish 
Commission and the Department of 
Labor; 

And the newly created Bureaus of 
Manufactures and of Corporations. 

The law which created the Depart- 
ment of Commerce and Labor also gave 
the President authority to transfer to 
the new department from the other de- 
partments, excepting the Agricultural, 
any statistical or scientific bureau. 


THE POSSIBILITIES OF SOUTHERN 
APPALACHIAN STREAMS 


WING to the growing importance 
of the Southern Appalachian 
Mountain region as a source of supply 
for many streams upon which depend 
important industries of the South, the 
United States Geological Survey has 
been making a systematic study of the 
water-courses which there take their 
rise. No other region in the eastern 
part of the United States is so important 
as a gathering ground for widely dis- 
tributed streams. Its copious rainfall, 
amounting in places to 72 inches, with 
an average for the whole region of about 
53 inches, together with its steep grade 
and large proportion of forests, makes 
it a unique gathering ground forstreams 
which flow eastward into the Atlantic 
and westward and southward into the 
Gulf of Mexico. The work of the Sur- 
vey has been directed to the measure- 
ment of all the important rivers of the 
district, including the New, Yadkin, 
Catawba, Broad, Saluda, French Broad, 
Nolichucky, Watauga, Holston, Big 
Pigeon, Nottely, Chestatee, ‘Toccoa, 
Conasauga, Coosawattee, Cartecay, E]- 
lijay, Hiwassee, and Etowah. 

In the study made of these watersheds 
special attention was given to the nor- 
mal flow and the yearly variations in 
the discharge of the streams, the devel- 
oped and undeveloped water powers, 
the springs in the basins, the sources 
and quality of the water, and the gen- 


nO 


eral characteristics of the topography, 
rocks, and soil. Consideration was 
also given to the minerals, mines, forest 
areas, rainfall, and climate, as well as 
to the means of lumbering and of trans- 
portation. ‘The data thus collected will 
be made available for engineers, man- 
ufacturers, and others needing informa- 
tion concerning the water resources of 
the region. 


MONT PELEE 


EPORTS from Martinique tieate 

that Mont Pelée continues active. 
Prof. Angelo Heilprin states that be- 
tween the time he left the island, Sep- 
tember 6, 1902, and December 16, 1902, 
the mountain increased in height bodily 
about 950 feet according to measure- 
ments which have been sent him. Dur- 
ing January a severe eruption occurred 
which tore away the larger part of this 
increase, but since then the mountain 
has been steadily gaining in height 
again. A notable phenomenon about the 
volcano is a narrow obelisk which has 
been thrust forcibly and gradually 
through the throat of the volcano to a 
height of some 200 feet. ‘The obelisk 
is incandescent, pointed like a needle, 
and would appear from Lacroix’s ob- 
servations to be of a lavee-form nature. 
Mont Pelée has now been in a state 
of unceasing disturbance, more or less 
active, since the great catastrophe of 
May 8, 1902—in fact since several weeks 
before that day. 

Professor Heilprin plans to return to 
Martinique shortly to continue his per- 
sonal examination of the voleano. He 
is at present engaged in enlarging his 
volume, ‘‘ Mont Pelée and the Tragedy 
of Martinique,’’ for a second edition. 


The Census of China, recently com- 
pleted, shows the enormous total popu- 
lation of 426,447,000, according to the 
cabled reports. ‘The number of inhab- 
itants in Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, 
and Turkestan were only estimated. 
Thus more than one-fourth of the in- 


168 


habitants of the world are contained 
within the Chinese Empire. Even the 
British Empire with its vast possessions 
on every continent has 30,000,000 less 
inhabitants than China. In 1890 Mr 
E. G. Ravenstein estimated the inhab- 
itants of the earth at 1,487,900,000. 
Since then the number has increased at 
least 62,100,000, making a present total 
of 1,550,000,000. 

The British Empire, including India 
and the recently acquired possessions in 
South Africa, contains 396,105,000 peo- 
ple; the Russian Empire comes next, 
with less than one-third as many, 129,- 
004,000; the United States, including 
our island possessions, numbers about 
89,000,000; France and her colonies 
have 65,166,000, and the German Em- 
pire 56,367,000. No other country passes 
the fifty-million mark. 


The San Jose Scale, which is so destruc- 
tive to fruit trees in certain sections 
of the western United States, was the 
subject of a recent lecture by Charles 
lL. Marlatt before the Biological Society 
of Washington. Mr Marlatt was sent 
to Japan and China by the Department 
of Agriculture to study this pest and to 
discover some means of checking it. In 
Japan he found the scale only in those 
parts where trees had been imported 
from American nurseries. In China, 
however, around ‘Tientsin and Pekin 
and along the northern coast, he found 
the scale on nearly all the trees, and as 
it existed in parts where there had been 
no importations from America, he con- 
cluded that it was a native of China. 
Further studies convinced him that the 
scale was held in check bya red-spotted 
beetle, which ate theinsects. Mr Mar- 
latt wisely arranged for the capture of 
a great many of the red-spotted beetles, 
which were brought to the United States 
and distributed among those sections 
that were specially infested by the scale. 
It is hoped that the beetles will increase 
rapidly enough to check the spread of 
the scale. 


Tue Nationa, GroGRaPHic MaGAZINE 


The Outing of the Mazamas for 1903 
will be held at the Three Sisters, a 
triple peak in Lane County, Oregon, 
with an elevation of nine thousand feet. 
Members of the club rendezvous at 
Portland, leaving that city July 8 and 
Eugene July 9. The ascent of the peak 
is planned for July 13 or 14. The party 
return via Clear Lake and Lebanon (the 
old Military Road) in time for those who 
wish to join the Sierra Club in the ascent 
of Mt Shastaon July 25. It will be re- 
membered that the requirement for 
admission into the Mazamas is the as- 
cent of at least one snow-capped peak 
of formidable height. 


Bingham, Utah, Mining District The 
report of the U. S. Geological Survey 
on the areal and economic geology of 
the Bingham Canyon district, Utah, by 
Arthur Keith and J. M. Boutwell, is 
now nearing completion. It embodies 
four main parts, which are devoted to 
history and development, surface geol- 
ogy, economic geology, and detailed 
descriptions of mines. Bingham is the 
oldest camp in the state and the only 
one in which placer mining has proved 
successful. 


A map of the dairy region of New York 
State has been published by the Geo- 
logical Survey. It is called the Nor- 
wich sheet, and includes the thriving 
city of Norwich and the towns of 
Smyrna and Plymouth, as well as por- 
tions of the towns of North Norwich, 
Sherburne, Otselic, Pharsalia, McDon- 
ough, and Preston. A narrow strip of 
the southern part of Madison County, 
including parts of the towns of Hamil- 
ton, Lebanon, and Georgetown appears 
on the northern part of the sheet. 

The country is very hilly and the 
scenery picturesque. [he character of 
the region is so accurately shown on 
the map that by the contour lines it is 
easy to pick out the elevation above sea- 
level of any particular house, as well as 
of the hills about it. 


ie wel eae 


Alaskan Boundary 


iy none JON IY. EF OsieElx 


Pecocerctaiy Ol State, o1 the Joint mich 
Commission, and Counsel of the United 
States in the Present Alaskan 
Boundary Commission 


With Twelve Maps 


The most authoritative presentation of the 
Alaskan boundary dispute that has ever been 
issued. Published in the National Geographic 
Magazine, November, 1899. 


By mail for Twenty-five cents 


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| Contents of February N Namer 


Bsr: “Dy. Carroll D. Wright. { 
he Science of | be maa Professor ABAPE - 
Haun, F| > ; 
>The Evolution of es in Plants, _ Professor 
-Brapiey M, Dayn ; 
The piste id Tesporiange of Forestry. OvERTON 
bs Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty, Dr, 
FRevzRick ADAMS Woops, c 
» The Smithsonian Institution. 
“Recent Jewish Immigration to the United States. ‘ 
i Sih Roozx Mrrcneny. 
| The Behayior of Blind Animals. Professor ‘Wre- 
eesti - Tey Mirus, 
in Royalty. © Dr. }’ ‘Preventive Medicine, “General Groncr M. shay: 
SERRE EE on oe BERG. 
; A Statistic! Study of Eminent ear Professor 
'. McKgrm Carrenr, ‘ < 


af Scientific Literature: 
Biographies of Eminent Chemiate, 


cien ifie Bécicties 5 Th , “The Progress of Science: eyepire 
; “The British Education “The. American Association for the Adyance- 
Ny Rood; The Proposed _Enlarge- | Ment of Science; The Recognition of the Im- 
tation; The New Yor (> portance ‘of Preventive Medicine; A Newly 
i , ; ecognized Factor in ‘American Anemias; 
ions Mechanical Mixtures |) Mune gern of Laniness” ; Carnegie Institution 
a Bbetane e8, Scientific eee. Seren nick ot ace Scientific tems, 


Y will be sent to new scribes for tx months 68 Obe Dollar’ 
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SPECIAL. MAPS. PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL 
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Map ‘of the Philippines 6 fork 2 inches x 3 fei. : ee 
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Map of South Africa (46 x33 inches). = 
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é Map of Northeastern China (36x28 inches) oe) 
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Map of the Chinese Empire, Jee, 

way (4$x7% inches). 


Map of Alaska (28x 24 jachies).: ieanaine 
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A Seties of Twelve Maps on the Alaskan Bo: 
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Chart of the World on Mercator’s Projec 
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A Series of Twenty-five Full-page Charts, showi e storm 1 
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Offi ie Cee the furn 


Farniare 


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at a very Small éxpense, and as the numb 

be added—and the book case grows as 
section or more, you have a complete 
and the ** mennet each has its ce 


‘SL. 15 per Section. we . Up | 


any particular room made to order with. 
out additional cost, We shall be pleased ~ 
to Bie you call aud examine them. eat 


Without Glass, in Solid Ok 
“A special Balan to Sinehe Sauer Of 
ee ie H IRD F L o OR. 


THE 
NATIONAL 
GRAPHIC 
\MAGAZIN 


Vol, X1V MAY, 1903 No. 5 
CONTENTS 
PAGE 


“THE UNITED STATES—LAND AND WATERS. BY CYRUS e: 
ADAMS.’ ILLUSTRATED * . ° 169 


THE CONQUEST OF BUBONIC PLAGUE IN THE PHILIPPINES. 
ILLUSTRATED. . : > 


_ IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CITY OF MANILA. ILLUSTRATED 


- AMERICAN nj elk Mecrip aaa OF "THE PHILIPPINES. 
ILLUSTRATED . : . 


BENGUET — THE Capua OF tne ee 
ILLUSTRATED |. . “ 


THE BRITISH SOUTH POLAR EXPEDITION 
‘THE WORK OF THE BUREAU OF : FORESTRY 
) THE TRANS-CANADA RAILWAY 
GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 
GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 


a 
: a 
Published by the National Geographic Society, 
Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. 
_ $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number 


Entered at the Post-effice in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter. 


ee ge cakes A NUM BEE: pase A YEAR” a ae es 


Halter: GILBERT ies os tS 


. @BNBRAL A. wr. GREELY eas 
Chief Signal Che: e Se a ae 


Wed McGHE 


Ethnolopist in “Charge, Bureau of 
American Ethnology Ss oe 


G. HART MERRIAM - 


Chief of the Pare a DS ee 


Department we al begiec ee 
ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE | 


Author of “Java, the Garden ite - as 


~ Bast,” ete. 


MARCUS BAKER dew 7 
Carnegie Zustitution.— =its 


WILLIS Ls. MOORS - 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. Ss esa 


rite of Agriculture 


S 


N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, . published by ‘the: a 
A Nationa, Grocrapuic Society, at Washing- 
ton, D. C. All editorial communications — 
should be addressed to the Editor of the Nationar 
Grocrapuic Magazine, Corcoran Building, Wash- 
ington, D. C. “Business communications should 
be addressed to the National ecgrape eee 
Corcoran Banding, ve ‘D. os 


"Associate Editors 


°. 'p. AUSTIN ee 


ae M. PARBELL 


— LOUISE GARRISON 


-O; H. TITTMANN gee 
‘ p Superipieaiirad 6 of the a Ss fe 
gate gape — 


se ee Barnoy ° Serie: 
ae Ss AVEGSUTY faeces 


DAVID 7. ‘DAY ce 
: - Chief of -the Division of Mineral. 
eeewes U.S. Geale aes 


Sas 


A : of “Life Nepoteon 
“Lif yt Mi - 


a 


Principal o, = Be Pg Shook, % Wash 


Ang. 


ap 
jyoett 


From a photograph taken by Mr Bailey Willis 


Wapitus Lake and Dutch Miller Pass, Washington 


‘‘Our scenery from the White Mountains to the Pacific Coast Ranges may be included among our 
resources, as substantial a source of gain, as the Alps of Switzerland, which bring into that country 
millions of dollars every year.’’ 


Voi. XIV, No. 5 


WASHINGTON 


May, 1903 


GEOGIRAIPIGUIC 
MAGA ZIUNIE, 


EU N EDS AME SS CAND: AND 
WATCIBIRUIS) 


By Cyrus ©. ApAms, 


AUTHOR OF 


ANY foreigners who cross our 
M country are impressed by two 
facts: its vast extent and its 
very apparent sparsity of population 
away from a few great centers. We 
are among the most populous nations 
in the world but our domain south of 
Canada is so great that with all our 
77,000,000 people we have an average 
density of population of only about 
twenty-eight to the square mile, in 
which respect we are comparable with 
Norway, one of the most thinly peopled 
countries of Europe. That part of 
Great Britain occupied by England is 
one of the most densely peopled regions 
in the world; but if England had only 
our density of population its inhabit- 
ants would number less than one-fourth 
the number in Greater London. 


GREAT DENSITY OF POPULATION 


We have really no conception derived 
from our experience at home of what 


* An address before the National Geographic Society, February 10, 1903. 


*“ COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY,’’ ETC., 


ETC. 


great density of population means. Per- 
haps the following facts may give a vivid 
idea of it. If we were to crowd our 
77,000,000 people into Texas and add 
to them 40,000,000 more we should have 
a density of population in that state 
comparable with that of the lower 
Yangtse valley and the great eastern 
plain of China between the Yangtse 
and the Hoang rivers. But human ex- 
perience has recently recorded a still 
greater density of population than this, 
and the following is deduced from the 
census taken last year by the Chinese 
government and already accepted by 
statisticians as a fair approximation of 
the number of persons in China. If 
we were to place in Texas double the 
population of the United States, or, 
say, 150,000,000 persons, we should 
have in that state approximately the 
density of population that is to be found 
in the Shantung province. Our nation 
may never be called upon to confront 


This is the first 


of a series of articles on the United States which are to be published in the succeeding numbers 


of this Magazine. 


72 


the problems growing out of such a 
prodigious congestion of humanity as 
this; and these illustrations of great 
density of population are given here 
only to show one aspect of our enor- 
mous territory. China is not half so 
large as our country and its natural re- 
sources, area for area, are no greater 
than our own ; so the 408,000,000 souls 
in China proper at least give emphasis 
to the thought that we have as yet 
scarcely began to scratch the surface of 
the capacity of this country to support 
many times its present number of in- 
habitants. 


OUR DIVERSITY OF CLIMATE AND 
PRODUCTS 


Another influence of our vast area is 
permanent, far-reaching and most sig- 
nificant. The United States extending 
from ocean to ocean reaching far into 
the north and far into the south, with 
vast areas only 1,000 feet or less above 
the sea and others of high altitude, has 
great variety of climatic conditions and 
therefore great diversity of products ; 
so that we grow nearly all the commodi- 
ties of the temperate and subtropical 
zones, and not a few products of the 
tropical zone. We raise the citrus fruits 
of the Mediterranean, the figs of Smyrna 
and the dates of the Persian Gulf. We 
find that we can grow the famous Su- 
matra tobacco which we still import to 
the amount of millions of dollars every 
year; that we can produce Egyptian 
cotton, and Egypt does not raise all that 
the world would like to consume of that 
unique and superior fiber. This di- 
versity of products and our large mineral 
resources make the country practically 
self-sufficient. No nation can become 
self-sufficient unless it reaches across a 
continent and embraces a wide latitude 
like the Russian Empire, Australia and 
the United States. We really need to 
import very little except certain raw 
materials from the tropics which our 
own colonial possessions may some day 


supply. 


Tue NarionaL GroGRAPHiIc MaGaZINE 


SOME ADVANTAGES OF OUR GEO- 
GRAPHIC POSITION 


We may properly treat not only the 
vast extent of our country, but also its 
situation with respect to other nations 
as among the geographic elements that 
have helped our material development, 
which is the topic assigned tome. It 
is to our advantage that we are on the 
same side of the tropics with the nations 
that are the greatest buyers of the bread 
and meat stuffs and other commodities 
we have to sell. It is a great disad- 
vantage to be compelled to carry perish- 
able commodities across the tropics. 
India raises large quantities of wheat 
and Europe would have been glad, many 
years ago, to buy Indian wheat; but 
before the Suez Canal was built India 
could not export this breadstuff to 
Europe. Steamers could not carry the 
wheat because, to double the south end 
of Africa, they had to recoal at St. 
Helena or Cape Town and coal was very 
dear for it was brought from Europe 
5,000 or 6,000 miles away; the cost of 
the trip was very high and wheat being 
a cheap and heavy commodity can never 
be transported far at high freight rates. 
Wheat often sells for sixty cents a bushel 
in Chicago, and unless rates are cheap 
it cannot bemoved. Neither could sail- 
ing vessels carry the Indian crop because 
they moved slowly through the hot lati- 
tudes both of the Indian and Atlantic 
Oceans and by the time the long journey 
was over the deterioration of the grain 
rendered it almost unsuitable for flour. 
But when the Suez Canal was opened 
India could send her wheat to Europe 
by steam and the problem was solved. 

Before the days of refrigeration meat 
could not be sent to markets across the 
tropics ; but even with refrigeration it 
is a great disadvantage to be compelled 
to freeze meats solidly in order to insure 
their good condition upon reaching the 
consumer. There is much prejudice 
against frozen meats in some parts of 
Europe, particularly in Germany, but 
consumers there are willing to buy enor- 


Tue Unitrep Stares—LANnp AND WarTeErRs 


mous quantities of our chilled meats, 
which, they assert, are superior in qual- 
ity to the frozen article. We are not 
compelled to freeze our meats to send 
them to Europe but the consignments 
are placed on steamships in chilled rooms 
whose low but not freezing temperature 
keeps them in good condition. When 
we remember that our foreign meat trade 
isa very important element in our com- 
merce we can realize the inestimable ad- 
vantage of not being compelled to carry 
this commodity across the tropics. 

The United States, as well as all the 
other greatest commercial nations, fronts 
on the Atlantic making that ocean the 
preeminent highway ofseatrade. A few 
years ago, a patient and laborious Ger- 
man set himself the task of ascertaining 
approximately the amount of business 
activity on the Atlantic. After collect- 
ing many facts he reached the conclu- 
sion that there are always afloat on that 
ocean about 50,000 vessels of one sort 
or another and that its floating popula- 
tion is constantly about 300,000 human 
beings. The value of the Atlantic for 
sea trade is increased by the fact that 
most of the great navigable rivers be- 
long to the Atlantic drainage basin. All 
the great rivers of Europe, except the 
Volga, of Africa, except the Zambesi, 
and of America south of Alaska are trib- 
utary to the Atlantic. The Yangtse of 
China is the only river of the first class 
and of great commercial importance that 
is tributary to the Pacific. The Indian 
Ocean finds feeders for its trade in the 
Menam, the Irawadi, the Ganges and 
the Indus; but the great rivers of north- 
ern Asia are frozen two-thirds of the 
year and empty into seas that are likely 
to be ice-choked at all seasons. We 
shall see a little later how wonderfully 
helpful are our rivers in contributing to 
our large share in the sea trade of the 
Atlantic. 


HARBORS OF THE UNITED STATES 


We are blessed with an abundance of 
good natural harbors to serve our com- 


LOS 


merce on this highway. Most of the 
largest and best of them are exactly 
where they may best serve our trade—on 
our northeast coast fronting the great- 
est commercial nations of Europe, with 
whom we have the largest dealings. On 
the whole, our harbors are naturally 
better than those of Europe; the result 
is that though nearly all harbors require 
large expenditure to fit them for ship- 
ping and to make good the deteriora- 
tion that is constantly in progress, our 
disbursements for these purposes are 
not nearly so great as they are in Eu- 
rope. Since the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey was organized New York Bay 
has been resurveyed five times to indi- 
cate the positions of needed improve- 
ments. The work of deepening and 
extending the channels of New York 
Harbor in progress for several years past 
may cost from $7,000,000 to $8,000,000 
before it is completed ; but Liverpool 
Harbor has cost, from first to last, over 
$200,000,000, more than half of which 
has been expended in the last forty-five 
years. 

The great distinction between our 
leading seaports and those of Europe is 
that we have only to improve our natu- 
ral harbors while the nations over the 
sea must make their great ports. Hu- 
rope can show no ports like those of 
Puget Sound and San Francisco which 
will admit the largest vessels without 
deepening the channel; and our other 
largest ports may attain the same degree 
of efficiency at a total cost that seems 
small in comparison with the vast sums 
spent at Liverpoolalone. London, New- 
castle and Cardiff, as seaports, are largely 
artificial creations, the result of im- 
provements made at enormous cost. 
The port of London extends from Lon- 
don Bridge to the mouth of the Thames 
but no vessel drawing more than 26 
feet can ascend to London except at 
high tide; at other times large ships 
must stop at Tilbury Docks, 35 miles 
downtheriver. Glasgow deepened and 
widened the little ditch of the Clyde till 


From Gilbert and Brigham’s ‘Introduction to Physical Geography,’’ D. Appleton & Co. 


Among the Palmettos of Florida 


The great diversity of our climate is well illustrated by the contrast of this and the 
succeeding picture 


Census Office 


>: 


From U. 


ichigan 


rests of M 


ine Fo 


In the White P 


176 


it was transformed into a ship-floating 
river. All the Baltic ports of Germany 
are more or less obstructed by ice in 
winter, nor do her great North Sea 
ports always escape this inconvenience ; 
for this reason Hamburg and Bremen 
require outports and Bremen must have 
an outport all the time because the 
larger vessels cannot ascend to the city. 
We have no port like that of Valpa- 
raiso, Chile—a splendid harbor save for 
the vital defect that the entrance from 
the sea isso wide that storms invade it 
and endanger shipping. We have no 
need for such a splendid example of 
engineering art as the great breakwater 
at Cherbourg which without this protec- 
tion would be a dangerous roadstead. 
The North American seaboard shows 
no conspicuous example of the artificial 
harbor so common in other countries 
except at Vera Cruz which has just been 
turned by the labor of years into a good 
and commodious port. 


TYPES OF HARBORS 


Most of our Atlantic coast is low and 
presents all the prominent types of nat- 
uralharbors. Weknow that large areas 
of the earth’s surface are very slowly 
subjected to vertical movements, being 
uplifted above their former level or de- 
pressed beneath it; and that these move- 
ments are best observed along the mar- 
ginsofthesea. Wespeak, forexample, 
of the uplifting of a part of the coast of 
Scandinavia, and of the sinking of the 
coast of New Jersey. In the course of 
the depression of the coast line the sea 
invades the valleys, widening and deep- 
ening them, and turning some of them 
into deep water harbors which are called 
Drowned Valley Harbors. When the 
sea burst over the barrier at the Golden 
Gate it turned the valley on which San 
Francisco stands into one of the finest 
drowned valley harbors in the world. 
New York is another example of a 
drowned valley harbor, which, wher- 
ever found, are among the best natural 


Tue NationaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


harbors. We see another form of the 
drowned valley harbor in the fiords of 
the Maine coast, long, narrow and deep, 
with this disadvantage that, when their 
entrances are funnel-shaped, the incom- 
ing tide rises very rapidly and high so 
that the difference between mean high 
and low tide in some of our Maine ports 
is as much as 20 feet which is an incon- 
venience to shipping. The difference 
between mean high and low tide at New 
York is only a little ever 4 feet. 

The barrier harbor is also well repre- 
sented on our eastern seaboard; thus 
we may speak of Boston harbor as be- 
ing protected from sea storms by the 
cluster of islands at its mouth; and of 
the numerous smaller ports of the south 
Atlantic coast as sheltered from the 
ocean by the sand reefs that extend 
brokenly along the front of our coast 
from Long Island to Florida. 

River ports such as Philadelphia and 
New Orleans and ports at the head of 
deep embayments, as Baltimore, permit 
ocean vessels to penetrate a considerable 
distance into the land which is an advan- 
tage because ocean freights are cheaper 
than those of the land routes. Balti- 
more, 140 miles from the sea, is nearer 
to the Mississippi valley than is New 
York. 

Our Pacific coast, unlike our eastern 
seaboard, is high and rocky and has 
only four fine harbor centers but they 
are so distributed as toserve adequately 
all the purposes of our Pacific trade. 
Puget Sound, one of the most useful of 
inlets, has scores of miles of shoreline 
along which the water is so deep that 
docks might be built anywhere for the 
largest vessels. The fine river port of 
Portland supplements the Puget Sound 
ports in the northern trade, San Fran- 
cisco is the great central gateway of the 
Pacific commerce and San Diego, at the 
extreme southwestern corner of the 
country, with a landlocked harbor in 
which the government has been mak- 
ing great improvements, is nearest to 


Tue Unirep Strares—LAND AND WATERS 


the cotton-fields and is becoming impor- 
tant in the shipment of raw cotton and 
cotton fabrics for the Oriental market. 

When a steamship leaves Seattle in 
summer the crowded decks and docks 
resemble the busy and inspiring scene 
upon the departure of an Atlantic liner 
at New York. The fact that most of 


Lay 


now building hotels, making roads, cut- 
ting paths and procuring guides, so that 
scenery may be enjoyed to the best ad- 
vantage and under comfortable circum- 
stances. Our scenery, from the White 
Mountains to the Pacific coast ranges, 
may be included among our resources, 
as substantial a source of gain as the 


From Geo. M. Weister 


Portland, Oregon, Mt Hood in the Distance 


“ Our Pacific coast, unlike our eastern seaboard, is high and rocky” 


those passengers are not going to seek 
gold should convince us that it is time 
to count scenery among the important 
assets of the country. Every year in- 
creasing crowds are drawn to Alaska by 
the mighty glaciers, the rugged fiords, 
the snow mountains and the splendid, 
hracing air in that part of our domain. 
Among our western mountains men are 


Alps of Switzerland which bring into 
that country millions of dollars every 
year. 
OUR COASTAL PLAINS 
The United States, in the main, is a 
great central plain bordered on the east 


by mountains of no great elevation, and 
on the west by plateaus and mountains 


178 


of high elevation ; with narrow eastern 
and broad southern coastal plains; with 
most of the rivers that are important in 
an economic sense confined to the east- 
ern half of the country ; and with in- 
land seas providing the cheapest trans- 

portation known excepting on the 
oceans. All these topographic features 
have had a profound influence in dis- 
tributing our industries and shaping our 
development. 


THe NarionaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


large quantities of lumber and naval 
stores; and on the sea edge are the 
swamps which, when reclaimed, are ex- 
tremely fertile. Where the softer plain 
joins the harder rocks of the Appa- 
lachian belt the rivers crossing from the 
harder to the more yielding rocks have 
made a line of waterfalls beside which 
many thriving towns and cities have 
been reared to use this power in manu- 
facturing ; and along these narrow belts 


From Willard D. Johnson, U. S. Geological Survey 


On the High Plains, Western Kansas 


Large areas of our high plains are being reclaimed by artesian wells, which enable ranchmen 
to establish stock-watering points at comparatively close intervals 


Probably no other coastal plain has 
soadvantageous a position and so many 
elements that conduce to prosperity as 
the plain along our Atlantic seaboard. 
The waste brought down from the 
mountains on the west has contributed 
to its fertility and made it a meridional 
zone of fruits and vegetables, cereals 
and hay. At its western edge are the 
clays used in the development of the 
largest pottery industries of the coun- 
try. Nearer the sea is the long sandy 
zone which, south of Virginia, supplies 


of manifold resources and industries 
extend railroads easily built because 
they met few natural obstructions and 
leading straight to the great cities of the 
north that are the preeminent markets. 
for most of these commodities. 


THE GREAT VALLEY, PLAINS, AND 
PLATEAUS 


The broader southern plain along the 
Gulf is a great region of the lumber in- 
dustry with a product of nearly $2,000, 
000 a year, of agriculture and chiefly of 


Tue Unitrep Strates—LaANnpD aNnp WarTERS 


cotton-raising for this is a part of the 
great cotton belt. The plain merges 
with the Mississippi Valley which from 
our northern border to the Gulf is the 
preeminent agricultural zone of the 
country, the northern part of it, man- 
tled with the fertile rock’ mixtures of 
the glacial drift, the richest area of 
wheat and maize in the world; the 
southern part, included in the cotton 
belt, which supplies nearly three-fourths 
of the world’s cotton; and in the bor- 
der lands between them a zone of to- 
bacco cultivation, our largest area de- 
voted to this crop. 


Te 
have been much impaired by overgraz- 
ing and must be nursed back to their 
former productivity. Just as the nib- 
bling sheep have destroyed all verdure 
on the mountains of Greece so they 
have been very effective in killing out 
much of the nutritious bunch and other 
grasses on the plains and among the 
mountain pastures farther west. The 
plains gradually rise till they merge 
with the Great Plateaus which embrace 
about a third of the country and with 
their surmounting mountains extend 
nearly to the Pacific. They are the 
largest sources of our precious metals. 


From Willard D, Johnson, U. S. Geological Survey 


A Field of Watermelons, Western Kansas 


West of the Great Valley the plains 
begin to rise midway between the two 
oceans. It is to be observed that the 
main axes of all our predominant topo- 
graphic features extend north and south 
excepting the Great Lakes whose main 
axis is east and west. The plains ex- 
tending from Canada to Mexico and 
gradually rising to the western plateaus 
are the largest field of the grazing in- 
dustry which has long supplied most of 
our export beef though not our export 
cattle, the greater number of which are 
fattened in the corn belt. ‘The plains 


in whose production we have for many 
years usually surpassed other nations. 


UTILITY OF OUR MOUNTAINS 


We must count mountains as among 
our greatest blessings. While our val- 
leys and plains are the sources of most 
of the food for man and beast it is from 
the mountains that we derive a very 
large part of our metals and other min- 
erals. If we hada great mountain wall 
stretching from east to west we might 
be shielded from the Arctic blasts that 
sweep down from the plains of Canada 


180 


THe NarionaL GrocRAPHic MAGAZINE 


From F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey 


A Band of About 2,000 Sheep Grazing on the Mountain Slopes of Oregon, 
About 6,000 Feet Above Sea-level 


““Our mountains, though of little use for agriculture, provide a large amount of fine grazing 
land.” 


in winter and chill us to the bone. We 
know that northern India is thus pro- 
tected by the Himalayas and northern 
Italy by the Alps so that the average 
winter temperature on the French and 
Italian Riviera is warmer than at Rome. 
It is questionable however whether such 
a climatic barrier would be of any ad- 
vantage to us as a people for our diver- 
sity of climate tends to intensify stamina 
and energy. Our mountains are the 
largest sources of water power which 
is more valuable than ever now that 
electricity is used for the transmission 
of power. ‘They add largely to our 
timber resources and though of little 
use for agriculture they provide a large 
amount of fine grazing land. ‘Their 
rock waste is spread over the surround- 
ing plains to their enrichment and they 
husband our water resources where they 
are most needed. It isamong the moun- 
tains that reservoirs are to be built to 


conserve water from the melting snows 
and glaciers and advantageously dis- 
tribute it over the regions to be irrigated 
which, it is estimated, may reclaim 
50,000,000 acres to fertility. : 
Our mountains are partly responsible 
for the prevailing aridity of the plateau 
region for though the Pacific coast from 
Puget Sound to a little south of San 
Francisco has abundant precipitation 
the rain clouds are wrung nearly dry 
among the mountains so that there is 
little moisture left to distribute over the 
plains east of them; but nearly half of 
our Pacific coast to the south of San 
Francisco is in the zone of the northeast 
trade winds which girdle the world in 
the Northern Hemisphere, blowing most 
of the time as dry winds off the land in- 
stead of coming to the land as moist 
winds from the sea; so that even if there 
were no high mountains in the southern 
part of California the adjacent country 


Tue Unirep Strares—Lanp AND WarTeErRs 


181 


From M. A. Carleton, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


Combined Harvester-Thresher on One of the Vast Wheat Fields of the West 


would derive little rain from the Pacific. 
We are indebted to these southwestern 
Cordilleras for the fact that the rainfall 
they conserve may be led down to the 
California valleys turning them into 
areas of wonderful fertility, the great 
centers of our home production of semi- 
tropical and some other fruits. We re- 
member the time when the ‘‘ Great 
American Desert ’’ was spread over most 
of the western part of ourmaps. It has 
now shrunk to very small proportions 
indeed ; and the drier regions of the 
country will some day be eliminated as 
far as water can be obtained for their 
reclamation. 


DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL 


At least 20 inches of rainfall a year 
are required to make farming fairly 
profitable and this is a scanty supply. 
Nearly double that quantity falls in the 
half of the country lying east of the 


1ooth meridian and along the northern 
three-fifths of the Pacific coast, and to 
these regions is confined nearly our en- 
tire development of agriculture except- 
ing where stock is fed on the plains or 
crops are irrigated. The profound in- 
fluence which this unequal distribution 
of rainfall has had upon our lordship 
over the domain committed to us is 
shown on many maps. A map showing 
our density of population usually leaves 
white most of the vast region west of 
the rooth parallel ; a map showing the 
distribution of our swine industry shows 
its western frontier in central Nebraska, 
Kansas and Texas because we fatten 
hogs on maize which requires abundant 
moisture ; a map illustrating cattle in- 
dustries shows, the limit far to the west 
of the region of swine for cattle can 
thrive on grasses of the plains though 
we drive many of them into the corn 
belt to fatten. A map showing the 


182 


larger phases of our manufacturing de- 
velopment practically coincides with 
those colors on a density-of-population 
map showing forty or more inhabitants 
to a square mile. Naturally we have 
not developed large manufacturing in 
areas that average a fewer number of 
persons. If we look at a map of our 
irrigation centers we may see today a 
large number of them scattered over the 
plateau region. But those dots repre- 
sent only small areas of irrigated land. 
Perhaps we shall never see the irriga- 
tion centers largelyincreased in number 
but many of the dots on the present 
maps will spread out into broad or long 
patches of color representing very im- 
portant areas of reclaimed lands. 


RIVER VALLEYS AS LINES OF 
DEVELOPMENT 


River valleys have always facilitated 
the advance of man into the interior of 
the continents and for this reason the 
Nile, the Euphrates, the Ganges and 
other great rivers are spoken of as the 
creatorsof history. Exploration is usu- 
ally retarded wherever physical obstacles 
make it very difficult to ascend the rivers, 
such as the rapids of the Mekong and 
the Congo; the latter river was known 
less than 200 miles from its mouth until 
Stanley launched his boats on the upper 
river and floated down the stream. Our 
rivers also have been the creators of his- 
tory. Justasthe Jesuit Fathers paddled 
their canoes up the St. Lawrence and 
the Ottawa, carried them across portages 
to rivers leading to the Great Lakes, 
followed up the western tributaries of 
Lake Michigan and finally pushed their 
little craft into the current of the Mis- 
sissippi, so our forefathers used the 
rivers and lakes to push their hamlets 
and their farm lands inland ; and reach- 
ing out on both sides of the waterways 
they found new opportunities for settle- 
ment and enterprise. ‘The old Dutch 
burghers lined the Hudson with their 
farms and villages. In the course of 


Tue Nariona, GeocraepHic MacaZzIne 


time the settlements spread farther and 
farther from the river edge. The pio- 
neers, for example, pushed up on the 
great limestone plateau of the Catskills 
to see what they might find. They dis- 
covered fine forests of hemlock and the 
day came when immigrants from Con- 
necticut and other regions went to the 
Catskills for the primary purpose of 
using hemlock bark to turn into leather 
the hides produced by farmers. As the 
population of the valley steadily in- 
creased it was certain that a town would 
rise at the head of navigation on the 
Hudson; for wherever an important 
amount of transshipment of freight be- 
tween land and water is made there 
must be freight handlers, blacksmith 
shops, living accommodations, and fod- 
der and shelter for animals ; a town is 
sure to rise at such a place and thus 
Albany and Troy were founded at the 
head of navigation. The valley of the 
Mohawk was discovered opening an easy 
route of penetration to the west. The 
gradually growing stream of immigrants 
pushed westward clearing farms and 
founding settlements along the Mo- 
hawk ; following up a little tributary of 
the river some of them made their way 
into the forests of Fulton county where, 
finding plenty of deer, they began to 
dress buckskin and make gloves for 
which they found a ready market. The 
farmers’ wives and daughters took up 
the industry in increasing numbers and 
finally skilled labor from Europe came 
over and taught better methods of glove- 
making; so the industry grew until 
today we have Gloversville and the 
towns around it, the greatest centers of 
glove-making in the country. 

Entering the Onondaga valley from 
the Mohawk the pioneers found the salt 
springs of Syracuse, long the largest 
source of salt in the country ; Oswego 
on lake Ontario is one of the oldest set- 
tlements in New York because the early 
farmers found along the Oswego river a 
natural route of penetration from Syra- 


Tue Unitrep STaTEs—LAND anp WATERS 


183 


UNITED STATES 


Wichitag 


‘ort Wor! 


baila, 
Ko 


Austi 
Cute 


Mon: 


A 
Straw, 
San 


AeA Z 
“a\inge Fy Beatss DES) 
Gree® gursetde no 
\ > Bore 
Forsythe 


° 


‘ -| {Oral 
Houston” 


Interior Navigation 


SCALE 1: 33,000,000 


3 
San Antonio 


On 


* Galveston 


500 | 
—=x 


<—= 
110 


From ‘‘Commercial Geography,” by Cyrus C. Adams. 


On the basis of three feet as the minimum depth of navigability, the rivers of 
the United States afford over 14,000 miles of navigation, measured in straight 
lines, and much more following the sinuosities of the streams. 


cuse to the lake. Farther west they 
came to the Genesee river which they 
followed scores of miles to the south 
making its valley, for many years, the 
largest region of wheat in the country ; 
so they pushed steadily westward open- 
ing farms and planting towns along the 
lakes and the rivers flowing into them. 

The facts of nature pointed unmis- 
takably to the appropriate sites for 
towns. As the pioneers floated down 
the Ohio they came to the great bend 
of the river where it changes its course 
from northwest to southwest. When 
settlement spread away from the river 
not all the freight floated down the 
stream was destined for places farther 
southwest. There were towns to the 
northwest to be supplied and transship- 


ment of freight to land routes was neces- 
sary ; at this place of transshipment the 
city of Cincinnati arose. Still farther 
down the Ohio the river was impeded 
by rapids making another transshipment 
of freight necessary and this fact re- 
sulted in the city of Louisville. 

If we were to trace the history of our 
entire material progress we should find 
that the waterwavs of the eastern half of 
the country have been the main factors 
in determining the lines of development. 
Those persons who were able to inter- 
pret the meaning of the natural facts 
presented for their study have reaped 
large rewards. A young farmer started 
from St. Paul one day on a little steamer 
that was to be pushed as far up the 
Minnesota River as possible. He was 


D. Appleton & Co. 


184 


looking for some very desirable pre- 
émption claim on which to begin farm- 
ing. When the steamer finally stuck 
in the mud he said to himself: ‘‘It is 
right here that I want my 160 acres.’ 
He filed his claim and farmed the land 
till he sold it about ten years later for 
$25,000 to be divided into lots for the 
town of St. Peter which was rising at 
the head of navigation. 

No great country, however extensive 
its railroad facilities may be, can afford 
to neglect its water highways. Not- 
withstanding our river and harbor bills 
and our Mississippi Commission we 
know little as yet of the scientific de- 
velopment of waterways for commercial 
purposes as it is understood in all the 
countries of northwestern and north- 
central Europe where boats freighted 
on the Vistula in Russia may reach, 
through rivers and canals, all the lead- 
ing ports of the Baltic and North Seas. 
Increasing density of population and 
towns and cities more thickly scattered 
over our domain will impress us, as 
Europe has been impressed, with the 
absolute necessity of supplementing our 
railroads with the fullest possible de- 
velopment of our water routes. In the 
past few years we have seen the Missis- 
sippi transforming New Orleans into 
one of the great wheat ports as well as 
the greatest cotton port of the world. 
We see the Ohio and the Mississippi 
carrying coal, iron and lumber 2,000 
miles at a cost very little in excess of 
ocean freights; and though the Erie 
Canal, which provides the port of New 
York with a continuous waterway to 
Duluth is antiquated and inadequate, it 
has made the Hudson River, with its 
18,000,000 tons of freight a year, the 
largest commerce carrier among the 
rivers of America; it was the leading 
factor in giving to New York a com- 
mercial movement nearly equal to that 
of London. We have witnessed the 
development of our marine on the Great 
Lakes where marvelously cheap freights 


THe Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


have helped us to compete with the 
world in iron and steel goods though 
we carry most of our iron ore nearly 
1,000 miles to the coke and limestone 
required to smelt it. 


OUR TOPOGRAPHY FACILITATED RAIL- 
ROAD DEVELOPMENT 


A country as vast as ours and with as 
small a density of population could not 
so early have attained its present devel- 
opment if our enormous system of com- 
munications had not afforded the lowest 
land freight routes in the world. A 
good topographic map shows us that the 
topography of the country was very 
favorable for the building of the vast 
systems of railroads whose mileage, ex- 
tending to the neighborhood of most of 
our farms, would stretch nearly from the 
earth tothe moon. There are gateways 
through our mountain ranges so that 
none of them is a barrier to commerce. 
We have no obstacle like the Pyrenees 
which so completely walls France from 
Spain that the land trafic between them 
must be deflected from straight lines to 
circumvent the extreme ends of the 
mountains at the edge of the seas. The 
comparatively level surface of our plains 
and plateaus, the predominating easy 
gradients and the mountain passes have 
helped to cheapen railroad construction 
and transportation so that commodities 
may be cheaply moved. Argentina 
raises its export wheat within fifty miles 
of tidewater. Wesend our export wheat 
1,000 miles to tidewater but the price 
of freight has been so cheap that we are 
able to compete with any nation in the 
world in exporting this commodity. 

What a reservoir for future harvests 
of breadstuffs is our hard wheat region 
of Minnesota and the Dakotas, a part 
of the central plain of North America 
that is twice as large as Great Britain 
and Ireland or as New York and New 
England together, and larger than the 
German Empire. These three states 
are producing much more than one-half 


Conquest oF Busonic PLacug 


of the spring wheat of the country and 
we know that their capacity for pro- 
duction may be more than doubled. 
The Canadian northwest is boasting 
that its younger wheat fields are yield- 
ing twice as much grain to the acre as 
out lands; England with less favorable 
conditions for wheat culture than we 
enjoy raises more than double the quan- 
tity of grain to the acre than we pro- 
duce. 

We may say of our entire agri- 
cultural interest that we shall double 
our production when we improve our 
methods. We cannot measure yet the 
potential benefits which our Agricult- 
ural Department and the agricultural 
schools will confer upon the nation by 
their persistent teaching of scientific 
methods of tillage. A man near the 
east end of Long Island is demonstrat- 
ing every year that the highest grade 
of farming gives the best profits. He 
spends money without stint for fertil- 


185 


izers; all his operations are kept to the 
highest point of efficiency and he is 
selling his crop of vegetables, the pro- 
duct of 80 acres, at an average figure of 
$20,000 a year. He is making as much 
money from the soil as he could from 
any other business with the same amount 
of capital. 

The mistake is sometimes made of 
attributing to one factor more than its 
due share in bringing about the ad- 
vanced stage of development we have 
reached. ‘The attention of no American 
audience, however, needs to be called 
to the fact that in this nation of highly 
intelligent laborers, of inventive genius 
and of boundless energy and ambition, 
the geographic conditions that have 
so wonderfully helped us and some of 
which have been the topic of this brief 
discourse are only one of the all-potent 
influences which have advanced us to 
the rank we occupy among the great 
nations. 


iar CONOUES! OF /BUBONIG PEAGUE IN 
WBNS I SVOU Ne IN IES) 


HE United States has driven the 
bubonic plague out of the Phil- 
ippines as completely as it has 

swept yellow fever out of Cuba. 

The ravages of Asiatic cholera, which 
have claimed 100,000 victims in the 
islands, have diverted public attention 
from a fight against the bubonic plague 
waged by the health officers of Manila. 
This remarkable fight has no precedent 
in the history of the plague. If it had 
not been for the tireless vigilance and 
ceaseless war on rats and filth by Dr 
Meacham and his subordinates a wave 
of the plague would have swept over 
Manila and the islands as destructive of 
life as the cholera itself. 

The plague is always present at Hong- 
kong. ‘There is not a day in the year 


when some plague-stricken wretch is 
not trying to hidein the densely packed 
quarters of that city. Manila, 600 
miles across the sea, must therefore be 
constantly on her guard lest the plague 
slip in on one of the many vessels ply- 
ing between the two ports. 

The day after Christmas, 1899, a 
man was found in the streets of Manila 
dead from bubonic plague. ‘The dis- 
ease had invaded the city and began to 
spread. 

How the plague was fought and 
beaten is told by Hon. Dean C. Worces- 
ter, Secretary of the Interior of the in- 
sular government, in his report to the 
Philippine Commission for 1902. 

Bubonic plague was discovered at 
Manila December 26, 1899, and slowly 


186 


but steadily increased up to December, 
Igor.* 

The deaths in 1900 numbered 199, 
and in rgo1 reached a total of 432. The 
disease was at its worst each year dur- 
ing the hot, dry months of March, April, 
and May, nearly or quite disappearing 
during September, October, November, 
and December. It will be noted that 
the number of cases in I90r exceeded 
that in 1900 by 200, while the number 
of deaths was about two and a half times 
as great, and the percentage of mortality 
among persons attacked increased from 
73-4 in 1900 to 91.7 in Igor. 

This heavy increase in plague for the 
year 1901 justified the apprehension that 
a severe epidemic would occur in 1902. 
Strenuous efforts were made to improve 
the general sanitary condition of the 
city, but the habits of the Chinese resi- 
dents and the lower class of Filipinos 
were such as to render the enforcement 
of proper sanitary regulations well-nigh 
impossible. 

On account of the important part 
which house rats are known to play in 
the distribution of bubonic plague, a 
systematic campaign was inaugurated 
against these rodentsin Manila. Police- 
men, sanitary inspectors, and specially 
appointed rat-catchers were furnished 
with traps and poison, and both traps 
and poison were distributed to private 


* The deaths by months were : 


Cases. 
Months. 


- | Igor. | 1902, 


January. 


August... 
Septem) 
October.. 
November.. 
December 


THe Nationa GeocraPHic MaGaZziIne 


individuals under proper restrictions. 
A bounty was paid for all rats turned 
over to the health authorities, and sta- 
tions were established at convenient 
points throughout the city where they 
could be received. Lach rat was tagged 
with the street and number of the building 
or lot from which it came, was dropped 
into a strong antiseptic solution, and 
eventually sent to the Biological Labo- 
ratory, where it was subjected to a bac- 
teriological examination for plague. 
During the first two weeks 1.8 per cent 
of the rats examined were found to be 
infected. ‘This proportion steadily in- 
creased, reaching the alarming maxi- 
mum of 2.3 per cent in October. At 
this time numerous rats were found dead 
of plague in the infected districts, and, 
in view of the fact that epidemics of 
plague among the rats of a city in the 
past have been uniformly followed by 
epidemics among human beings, the 
gravest apprehension was felt, the rapid 
spread of the disease among the rats 
after the weather had become compara- 
tively dry being a particularly unfavor- 
able symptom. 

It was deemed necessary to prepare to- 
deal with a severe epidemic, and a per- 
manent detention camp, capable of ac- 
commodating 1,500 persons, was.accord- 
ingly established on the grounds of the 
San Lazaro Hospital. Hoping against 
hope, the board of health redoubled its 
efforts to combat the disease. The force 
of sanitary inspectors was greatly in- 
creased, and under the able supervision 
of Dr Meacham their work was brought 
toa high degreeof efficiency. Frequent 
house-to-house inspections were made 
in all parts of the city where the disease 
was known to exist. The sick were 
removed to the hospital if practicable; 
otherwise they were cared for where 
found and the spread of infection 
guarded against. 

Plague houses were thoroughly disin- 
fected, and their owners were compelled, 
under the direction of the assistant sani-— 


Conquest oF Busonic PLAGUE 


tary engineer, to make necessary altera- 


tions. Cement ground floors were laid, 
double walls and double ceilings, af- 
fording a refugefor rats, were removed, 
defects in plumbing were remedied, 
whitewash was liberally used, and, in 
general, nothing was left undone that 
could render buildings where plague 
had occurred safe for human occupancy. 
Buildings incapable of thorough disin- 
fection and renovation were destroyed. 
Buildings in which plague rats were taken 
were treated exactly as were those where 
the disease attacked the human occupants. 
The bacteriological examination of rats 
enabled the board of health to follow the 
pest into its most secret haunts and fight it 
there, and was the most important fac- 
tor in the winning of the great success 
which was ultimately achieved. 

With very few exceptions, there was 
no recurrence of plague in buildings 
which had been disinfected and reno- 
vated. As center after center of infec- 
tion was found and destroyed the per- 
centage of diseased rats began to de- 
crease, and in January, 1902, when, 
judging from the history of previous 
years, plague should have again begun 
to spread among human beings, there 
was notasinglecase. In February one 
case occurred. In March there were two 
cases, as against 63 in March of the pre- 
ceding year, and before April the disease 
had completely disappeared. 

This result, brought about at a time 
when the epidemic would, if unchecked, 
have reached its height for the year, 
marked the end of a fight begun by the 
board of health on the day of its organi- 
zation and prosecuted unremittingly 
under adverse conditions for seven 
months with a degree of success which 
has not been equaled under similar con- 
ditions in the history of bubonic plague. 

Especial credit is due to Chief Health 
Inspector Meacham for the ingenuity 
which he displayed in devising means 
for the destruction of rats and for the 
tireless energy with which he devoted 


187 


himself to securing their adoption, and 
to increasing the efficiency of his force 
of inspectors, as well as to Drs. J. W. 
Jobling and Edward A. Southall and 
their assistants, who worked unremit- 
tingly at the uncongenial and dangerous 
task of making a bacteriological exam- 
ination of rats, a large proportion of 
which were putrid, while not a few of 
them were infected with one of the most 
fatal of diseases. ‘This work was of 
necessity conducted in the inadequate 
building in which it has been necessary 
temporarily to house the bureau of gov- 
ernment laboratories, in close proximity 
to the civil hospital. The fact that not 
a single case of infection occurred 
among the laboratory force or the in- 
mates of the hospital is sufficient com- 
mentary upon the care with which it 
was performed. 

During rgo1 plague appeared at sev- 
eral points in the provinces near Manila. 
Agents of the board of health were 
promptly dispatched to the infected mu- 
nicipalities and radical remedial meas- 
ures were adopted, including in several 
instances the burning of infected build- 
ings, the result being the complete disap- 
pearance of plague in the provinces as well 
as in Manitla.* 

A few figures will still further im- 
press the American with the magnitude 
of this fight by his representatives in 
the Philippines. Of the 60,000 rats 
caught, tagged, and sent to the labora- 
tory, 40,666 were examined microscop- 
ically for bacilli, and of these 242 were 
found infested with plague. During 
one month 65,379 traps were set and 
403,789 plates of rat bane placed by the 
rat-catching squads, who had a special 
uniform and cap. The kind of poison 
had to be frequently changed, as the 
rats were very wary and suspicious. It 
is estimated that several hundred thou- 
sand rats were killed by the poison; 

*Report of the Philippine Commission for 


1902, vol. I, pp. 263-265. Government Print- 
ing Office, 1903. 


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IMPROVEMENTS IN THE City oF MANILA 


600 houses were remodeled, cleaned, 
and made habitable, and hundreds of 
shacks burned «to the ground.-~ In ad- 
dition to all this,’a systematic effort was 
made to immunize the susceptibles of 
Manila against bubonic plague’by means 
of the Shiga: antipestic vaccine. ‘The 
work was begun on the 15thof January, 
1902. From that date until the 1r5thof 
March over 25,000 persons were inocu- 
lated. ‘The lower classes, including the 
Chinese, cocheros, laborers, servants, 
peddlers, etc., with their wives and chil- 
‘dren, who are the occupants of the lower 
. floors and nipa houses, were especially 
selected for immunization. The goy- 
ernment laboratory furnished from two 
to three hundred doses of the antipestic 
vaccine daily, but on account of the 
large number requiring immunization, 
it was necessary to cable Professor Ki- 
tasato, of Tokyo, for additional vaccine, 
and 50,000 doses were received from 
that source. The work was performed 
by native physicians, under the direc- 
tion of Dr J. V. Tormey, medical in- 
spector. 
This long fight without rest day or 
night had told on Dr Meacham. When 


nO)S) 


the battle was over and the plague had 
been driven from its last haunt, he col- 
lapsed. His strength was exhausted, 
he was unable to fight for himself, and 
died on April 14, 1902. It is unfortu- 
nate for the United States that the man 
who freed the Philippines of bubonic 
plague, Dr Franklin R. Meacham, and 
the man who freed Cuba of yellow fever, 
Dr Walter Reed, should both pass away 
the very moment their great work had 
been accomplished. 

The plague had barely been defeated 
when Asiatic cholera attacked the city. 
Strict quarantine of infected districts 
and the burning of them when the dis- 
ease became too violent, the closing of 
wells, a careful inspection of all vege- 
tables, and a continuation of the cleans- 
ing of the city habitations checked the 
ravages of the disease, but could not 
prevent its spread. The water supply 
was kept from contamination by the 
rigid patrol of the United States Army, 
or conditions would have been many 
times worse. Several thousands died 
in Manila and about 100,000 in the 
provinces where the disease could not 
be controlled. 


IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CITY OF MANILA 


O city was ever more in need of 
| \ playgrounds or recreation fields. 
The natives of the islands take 
readily to games, and with little encour- 
agement would become keen rivals in 
many of the sports at the present time 
confined to the American and foreign 
population. Owing to the lack of ordi- 
nary healthful exercises and diversion, 
the great army of clerks and officials and 
the rapidly increasing American and 
foreign population find but little to do 
after office hours beyond going to clubs 
or driving, and both are expensive 
amusements. 


The board of public works is pre- 
paring plans for converting the large 
field in front of the Luneta, known as 
Camp Wallace, into a recreation ground 
open to everyone, where such sports as 
baseball, football, cricket, polo, and 
lawn tennis may be enjoyed. A part 
of the field will be devoted to a chil- 
dren’s playground, modeled as nearly 
as possible after similar places in the 
United States. There is in preparation 
a plan for a city park, laid out with 
broad drives and walks, and also an 
aviary and zoological reserve, and all 
other elements of a modern park. With 


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AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES 


the building of the electric railroad such 
places will be accessible to every-one. 
The botanical gardens on the Paseo 
de Bagumbayan have been improved 
and extended until they approach their 
former state under Spanish manage- 
ment. Originally this park had many 
beautiful trees and plants and a splen- 
did collection of orchids, but nearly all 
of these, with the exception of the 
larger trees, were destroyed during the 
siege of the city and the insurrection. 
During the last few months the deer 
park has been completed, neatly fenced 
. with wire, and stocked with a number 
of deer of different kinds from the 
various islands of the archipelago. 
There is also a monkey cage, and from 
time to time the animals and buildings 
are being added to. This is a very 


Oy 


popular resort with all classes, espe- 
cially the Filipinos. 

The department of public works in 
Manila employs about 1,714 officers, 
mechanics, and laborers. Laborers are 
paid $1, 80 cents, and 60 cents per day, 
while a few subordinate assistants re- 
ceive 50 cents and 4o cents a day. 
Wages are paid monthly. Ordinary 
labor is plentiful, while skilled labor is 
scarce. On the whole, Filipino labor 
has been very successful, but its value 
has been considerably hampered by the 
numerous fiestas and the after effects, 
such as laziness and extended absences. 
No Chinese are employed. ‘The day 
consists of eight hours’ work. ‘The 
labor costs about 25 per cent more than 
it does in the United States, and is of 
an inferior quality. 


AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
PHILIPPINES 


OVERNOR TAFT, in his last 
G annual report, states that ‘‘the 
wealth of these islands must 
always be their agricultural products.”’ 
Formerly the Filipinos produced enough 
from their fields and forests to be self- 
supporting ; but asaresult of long years 
of internal disturbances, the loss of go 
per cent of the carabaos from the rind- 
erpest, and the recent devastation by 
cholera, most of the rice fields and farms 
have become overgrown with rank vege- 
tation, and lately there has been wide- 
spread famine. Congress at its last ses- 
sion appropriated $3,000,000 to relieve 
the distress intheislands. Half of this 
sum will be used immediately to import 
thousands of carabaos from Ceylon and 
India to be sold to the people at cost 
price. 
Meanwhile experts of the insular gov- 
ernment have been devising means to 
helpthe farmers. A serum has recently 


been discovered which will protect the 
carabao inoculated with it from the rind- 
erpest, so that carabaos may now be 
safely imported. ‘Tubes of locust fun- 
gus, obtained from Dr L. O. Howard, 
of Washington, have been distributed 
and have checked the plagues of locusts. 
In one instance 64 bushels of dead lo- 
custs were found in the vicinity of a 
place where eight or ten locusts, in- 
fected with the fungus, had been re- 
leased, and the remainder of the swarm 
had disappeared. A soil survey has been 
organized and has begun to examine the 
land in different sections of the islands 
to see whether new varieties of plants 
may not be introduced. Other experts 
have been trying to improve the native 
varieties by careful selection. Already 
the government has received applica- 
tions asking for information from more 
than one thousand persons, mainly Fili- 
pinos, distributed throughout the archi- 


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“S01Y YOS G13l4a V ONIMOYYVH 


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Pepuy eA |p FETT JOT 1 r Hp TOE CI Dye M ‘DS I N 


"S0IY ONIMOVLS 


FP AN 


“: 


AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES 


pelago. Eighteen thousand two hun- 
dred and fifty packages of field and 
garden seeds, including 134 varieties, 
have been distributed to them. It has 
been proved that fairly good Irish pota- 
toes and peas will grow in the lowlands 
near Manila. Beets also do well in the 
same locality, and radishes are ready 
for the table in three to four weeks after 
planting. Improved varieties of oranges 
and lemons brought from California are 
flourishing. A new species of wild 
grape has been discovered in the island 
of Negros. An effort is being made to 
improve it sufficiently for cultivation, 
as lo grapes to speak of have hereto- 
fore been grown on theislands. Fifty- 
two fiber-producing plants are known 
to exist in the Philippines, but only 
two of these have been of commercial 
value. Experts are experimenting to 
see whether some of the other fifty va- 
rieties may not also be profitable. 

‘These are only some of the practical 
devices of the government to better con- 
ditions. ‘The wasteful methods of the 
different industries—such as the gutta- 
percha, the tobacco, the sugar cane, 
and the hemp—at present causing a loss 
of fully 50 per cent in the product, are 
being corrected by educating the Fili- 
pino to a more economical and hence 
more profitable system. 

An experiment station for the grow- 
ing of rice on a large scale is being es- 
tablished. The present Filipino method 
of rice growing seems ridiculously anti- 
quated. Every blade of the millions of 
stalks on a large rice plantation is now 
planted by hand. The labor is most 
exhausting, since it must be done in 
stooping posture, either under the burn- 
ing sun reflected from the muddy water 
or under a mighty downpour of rain. 
Looking over the paddy fields in the 
month of October, it seems incredible 
that every blade was planted by hand. 
An effort is to be made to introduce the 
American drill for planting. Modern 
farming implements are being intro- 


201 


duced and their use taught the natives. 
An extensive stock farm for the breed- 
ing of draft and dairy animals is also 
being established. ‘The funds for these 
experiment stations are advanced by 
the government, but the stations are 
intended to be and will doubtless soon 
become self-supporting. 

Professor Worcester believes that the 
agricultural opportunities in the Philip- 
pines for young Americans are consid- 
erable. Only a small part of the soil 
capable of producing sugar, hemp, and 
tobacco is under cultivation. Large 
areas of government lands are admira- 
bly adapted to the cultivation of cocoa- 
nuts, for which there is a large and 
profitable demand. The trees can be 
grown readily and with comparatively 
little danger of loss. Under existing 
conditions, the minimum annual profit 
from a fairly good bearing tree is $1 
Mexican, and frequently two or three 
times this amount is realized. Other 
crops, such as Indian corn and alfalfa, 
can be grown between the rows of co- 
coanut trees while the latter are matur- 
ing, and used to fatten hogs, which 
always bring a good price in the Phil- 
ippine market. The demand for copra 
in these islands is greatly in excess of 
the supply and is steadily increasing, 
while cocoanut oil now sells readily in 
Manila at $1.25 Mexican per gallon. 

The lands along the coast of Min- 
danao and Paragua are particularly 
favorable to cocoanut growing, and in 
the latter island trees are said to come to 
bearing in four years. 

No other country hasclimate and soil so 
favorable to cacao growing as Mindanao. 
The cacao now produced in that island 
is of superior quality and is nearly all 
bought up for shipment to Spain, where 
it brings an especially high price. ‘There 
are numerous other regions in the isl- 
ands where cacao can be raised to great 
advantage, but there is not today a 
cacao plantation in the archipelago, the 
Filipinos having almost invariably con- 


; ‘O[IJAoy AIOA SI SPURIST IPT} JO [IOs 917} 
ySnoy} ‘premyorq ApSurposoxo ov spoyjour [emnqMose mot, “spessaa Surssed 04 qjes Soyy yor ‘spived May v pur ‘sypeys ‘sayqanz 
‘STaquInond vas ‘S]soul Spl o[qrpe Suroyyes ur omy oy} Jo ysour puads, dnors souvurmepey sy} Jo syuvpqeyur oyy—'cl ‘ON 


“SGNV1SI SANVNINV1VO ‘S01HY ONILSAAYVH NAWOM VANVdOVL “AYNLINOINSY SAILIWIYd 


Bencuret— THE GARDEN OF THE PHILIPPINES 


tented themselves with planting a few 
scattering bushes, which are left prac- 
tically without care, to be swamped by 
brush and preyed upon by insects. 
Proper harvesting and curing methods 
are not employed. ‘The fruits are torn 
from the bushes, injuring the bark and 
leaving the way open for the attacks of 
injurious insect pests. 
An especially fine coffee is grown in 
the mountain regions of Benguet and 
Bontoce and in the province of Lepanto. 
The bushes yield heavy crops and the 
unhulled coffee at present sells readily 
in Manila at $35 Mexican per cavan, 
for consumption in these islands or for 
shipment to Spain. Coffee bushes come 
to bearing in Benguet in three years. 
There is no region in the United States 
which has a more healthful or delight- 
ful climate than is afforded by the Ben- 
guet highlands, where a white man can 
perform heavy field labor without ex- 
cessive fatigue or injury to his health. 
It is almost impossible to secure in 
Manila the milk needed by the sick. 
Fresh milk sells for 75 cents Mexican 
per wine quart. A dairy on the out- 
skirts of the city, with 95 animals, in- 
cluding several bulls, was netting $5,000 
Mexican per month when the animals 
were attacked by rinderpest. 

Fresh meats to the value of $609,664 


203 


per annum, exclusive of that used by 
the Army and Navy, are being imported 
each year into Manila. ‘There is no rea- 
son why in time the islands should not 
supply this meat. The pastures of Ben- 
guet, Lepanto, and Bontoc afford one 
vast well-watered cattle range, where 
improved breeds of horned cattle could 
be successfully introduced, while in the 
lowlands there are vast stretches of 
grazing lands suitable for raising cattle 
and carabaos. ‘The latter are at present 
worth $150 to $300 Mexican per head 
in the Manila market. Properly con- 
ducted cattle ranches willcertainly yield 
very handsome returns. 

Excellent native oranges are produced 
in the province of Batangas, in the Cala- 
mianes Islands, and elsewhere. ‘The 
trees, which are often large and vigor- 
ous, seldom receive any care, nor has 
any systematic effort been made to im- 
prove the quality of the fruit, which 
sells readily at a good price. ‘There is 
every reason to believe that improved 
citrus fruits can be successfully intro- 
duced. 

Numerous new industries, such as 
raising of vanilla in the lowlands and 
the cultivation of fruits and vegetables 
peculiar to the temperate zone in Ben- 
guet, ought, if properly conducted, to 
result profitably. 


BENGUET_THE GARDEN OF THE 
PHILIPPINES 


War dated April 15, Governor 
Taft announced his arrival at 
Benguet, which he described as follows : 
““Great province. ‘This is only 150 
miles from Manila, with air as bracing 
as Adirondacks or Murray Bay. Only 
pines and grass lands. ‘Temperature 
this hottest month in the Philippines, 
in my cottage porch at 3 in the after- 


if a cablegram to the Secretary of 


noon, 68° F. Fires are necessary night 
and morning.”’ 

Benguet is a little province about 
the size of Rhode Island. It consists 
almost entirely of high mountains, 
some of them reaching to 7,000 feet, 
and resembles an American park in the 
variety and beauty of its scenery. ‘he 
elevated tablelands of the province 
Governor Taft plans to make a health 


IGORROTE CLIMBING A TREE FERN, BENGUET. 


No. 13.—In Benguet Province, Luzon, gigantic tree ferns and the northern pine 
are seen growing side by side. It isa wonderful region, where tropical, subtropical, 


and temperate zone plants thrive equally well. 


OE: Oi 


Mf 


f 


Oe 


Raz 
eo teen te rer 


IN THE PINES, BENGUET. 


‘Sa}O1TOST OY} Aq SAOTTVA OS9Y} UE WMOAT st [tom oy] UT oayoo ysauy at] Jo au0S—'S1 ‘oN 


‘sUYSUq vogoo Aq popuUUnOLIUS SosLO FT 


NOZN1 ‘LANONSE ‘NVAVEVO JO NMOL JLONYOD! SHL 


“AUTIGE [BOLMBYOIUL 9]qeASpIsuoOD aARY pu 
‘uozi/] JO JJBY UreyzI0U ay} 19A0 pvords ‘sov1 ouy v aie Koy, ‘soutddiyiyq ay} Jo siepuvyysiy 9y} a1v sojor0Sy sy T—'91 ON 


"NOZN1 “LANONAG ‘NVAVEVO ‘S3O0VYNSaL 30IY SLOYYODI 


4 CHIEF OF THE GADDANES, ISABELA, LUZON. 


No. 17-—One of the most important branches of the insular government is the 
Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes, whose duty it is to find out the actual conditions of 
the various non-Christian tribes in the archipelago. These tribes comprise about 
2,000,000 people. At present no accurate information is to be had about them. They 
cover Northern Luzon, Mindoro, Palawan, and the great island of Mindanao. Some 
of them, like the Negritos, are comparatively harmless, while others, like the Gad- 
danes, are fierce and hard to control. It is said that head hunting is still practiced 
by the Gaddanes, and that a young man of this tribe cannot find a bride until he has 
at least one head to his credit. 


ADULT NEGRITO WOMAN, SHOWING RELATIVE SIZE. 


No. 18.—The Negritos are physical and mental weaklings, and are rapidly disap- 
pearing. They are found in the interior of all the larger islands, and are generally 
supposed to have been the first inhabitants of the islands, having come from New 
Guinea. They hide in the mountain forests, where they were driven by later in- 
vaders. There are about 30,000 of them left. They live on the fruits and tubers 
which they find in the forest, and like the pigmies of Africa kill their game with 
poisoned arrows. 


210 


resort for the Americans in the islands. 
At present it is reached only by horse 
trail, but a wagon road is being built 
by the insular government and a rail- 
way has been surveyed and will be 
constructed before many years. 

Forests of pine and cedar cover the 
higher slopes of the mountains, while 
lower down in the valleys gigantic ferns 
are seen. 

It may well be doubted if any region 
in the world offers such unexcelled ad- 
vantages for experimental work with 
plants as are presented by the climate 
and soil of Benguet. The climate ad- 
mits of the growing of a great variety 
of tropical, subtropical, and temperate 
zone plants. Inthe gardens of the gov- 
ernor one may see coffee bushes bearing 
heavily, fine tea plants, hot-house gar- 
denias, caladiums, draczenas, frangi- 
pani, and mango trees, all characteristic 
of the tropics; alsophila tree ferns, 
scarlet hibiscus, passion fruit, begonias, 
hydrangeas, and many other plants of 
the subtropical regions, and side by side 
with these potatoes, tomatoes, peas, 
beans, celery, and other garden vege- 
tables and monthly roses, all strictly 
temperate zone products, while the 
neighboring hillsides are covered with 
pine trees and produce raspberries and 
huckleberries in considerable abun- 
dance. 

A red volcanic soil covers large areas 
in the province. This soil seems ex- 
traordinarily fertile. At the beginning 
of the rainy season last year, the most 


Wells, WkRIIwiSisl SQW Lal 


HE Antarctic expedition sent 

out by the Royal Geographi- 
cal Society and Royal Society 

of England in rgor has done very good 
work during its first year in the far 
south. Captain Scott, the leader, with 
a sledging party, succeeded in getting 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


unfavorable time, cabbage, tomatoes, 
onions, leeks, carrots, turnips, pars- 
nips, beans, peas, cucumbers, marrow, 
squashes, pumpkins, salsify, Irish pota- 
toes, white oats, wheat, millet, and 
alfalfa were sown, and the results would 
have done justice to California. 

On the elevated plateau are vast 
stretches of well-watered grazing land, 
where thousands of horned cattle can 
find rich pasturage. 

About 15,000 people live in Benguet, 
nearly all of whom are Igorrotes. The 
Igorrotes of this province are intelligent, 
and pronounced vastly superior to the 
average Filipino. They are willing 
workers, cheerful, trustworthy, and 
skillfullaborers. The illustrations Nos. 
15 and 16 show that they possess con- 
siderable natural talent in construction. 
They are non-Christianized, having 
always resisted the attempts of the 


Spanish to convert them.* 

* REFERENCES.—The following list of offi- 
cial works relating to the Philippines, published 
by the government, may be of service. The re- 
ports may be purchased from the Superintend- 
ent of Public Documents, Washington, D. C.: 

Report of the Shurman Commission, 4 
vols., $2.35. 

First Report of the Taft Commission, No- 
vember 30, 1900, I vol., $0.50. 

Second Report of the Taft Commission, June 
30, Igo, 2 vols., $0.95. 

Third Report of the Taft Commission, No- 
vember I, 1902, 2 vols., $1.65. 

Atlas of the Philippines, $3.15. 

Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical 
Dictionary of the Philippines, $2.10. 

The Coal Measures of the Philippines, $0.40. 

The People of the Philippines, $0.05. 


ROWARS EEE DITO 


100 miles nearer the South Pole than 
any predecessor, reaching 80° 17’; the 
expedition wintered 4oo miles further 
south than any other expedition had 
ever done before, which makes their 
meteorological and other scientific ob= 
servations specially valuable; in their 


Tue British SourH PoLtar ExPEpDITION 


vessel the Discovery they coasted along 
the ice-barrier one hundred and _ fifty 
miles beyond the point where James 
Clarke Ross stopped 60 yearsago. This 
ice-barrier extends from the land out 
upon the water. From its front, which 
Captain Scott believes floats on the 
water, the great southern icebergs 
break, towering sometimes to nearly 
1,000 feet, and compared to which the 
icebergs of the North Atlantic are but 
pigmies. After coasting for many days 
along the ice-front to longitude 152° 30’, 
latitude 76°, they returned and put in 
ata safe harbor—MacMurdo Bay. ‘This 
they made their base of action. Here 
they passed the winter in sight of Erebus, 
the volcano which Ross had seen belch- 
ing forth fire and smoke in 1841. It is 
quiet now. A sledging party ascended 
a glacier to the height of 9,000 feet, and 
found a level plain stretching to the 
west as far as the eye could reach. 

In latitude 82° they discovered an 
extensive mountainous region, hitherto 
absolutely unknown, extending to 83° 
20’ nearly due south. This discovery 
seems to indicate that land stretches to 
the Pole in a series of lofty mountains, 
and is an important geographical result. 


CAPTAIN SCOTT'S REPORT 


The J/orning, the auxiliary wooden 
ship that left New Zealand December 
6, 1902, to carry supplies to Captain 
Scott, found the expedition at their 
winter base on Victoria Land, left the 
provisions, and then returned to New 
Zealand. The following is Captain 
Scott's report of his work until the ar- 
tival of the Worning : 

The Discovery entered the ice-pack 
‘on December 23, 1901, in latitude 67° 
south. Cape Adare was reached on Jan- 
uary 9, but from there a heavy gale and 
ice delayed the expedition, which did 
not reach Wood Bay till January 18. 
A landing was effected on the 20th in 
an excellent harbor, situated in latitude 
76° 30’ south. A record of the voyage 
was deposited at Cape Crozier on the 


211 


22d. The Discovery then proceeded 
along the barrier within a few cables’ 
length, examining the edge and making 
repeated soundings. In longitude 165° 
the barrier altered its character and 
trended northwards. Sounding here 
showed that the Discovery was in shal- 
low water. From the edge of the bar- 
rier high snow slopes rose to an exten- 
sive, heavily glaciated land, with occa- 
sionally bare precipitous peaks. The 
expedition followed the coast line as far 
as latitude 76°, longitude 152° 30’. The 
heavy pack formation of the young ice 
caused the expedition to seek winter 
quarters in Victoria Land. On Feb- 
ruary 3 the iscovery entered an inlet 
in the barrier in longitude 174°. A bal- 
loon was sent up and a sledge party ex- 
amined the land as far as latitude 78° 
50’, near Mount Erebus and Terror. 
At the southern extremity of an island 
excellent winter quarters were found. 
The expedition next observed the coast 
of Victoria Land, extending as far as a 
conspicuous cape, in latitude 78° 50’. 
It was found that mountains do not ex- 
ist here, and the statement that they 
were to be found is clearly a matter for 
explanation. Huts for living and for 
making magnetic observations were 
erected, and the expedition prepared 
for wintering. The weather was bois- 
terous, but a reconnaissance of sledge 
parties was sent out, during which the 
seaman Vince lost his life, the remainder 
of the party narrowly escaping a similar 
fate. The ship was frozen in March 24. 

The expedition passed a comfortable 
winter in well-sheltered quarters. The 
lowest recorded temperature was 62° 
below zero. ‘The sledging commenced 
with the coming of spring, on Septem- 
ber 2, parties being sent out in all di- 
rections. Lieutenant Royds, Mr Skel- 
ton, and party successfully established 
a record in an expedition to Mount 
Terror, traveling over the barrier under 
severe sledging conditions, with a tem- 
perature of 58° below zero. Com- 
mander Scott, Dr Wilson, assistant sur- 


22, 


geon, and Lieutenant Shackleton trav- 
eled ninety-four miles to the south, 
reaching land in latitude 80° 18’ south, 
longitude 163° west, and establishing a 
world’s record for the farthest point 
south. ‘The journey was accomplished 
in most trying conditions. ‘The dogs 
all died, and the three men had to drag 
the sledges back to the ship. Ljieuten- 
ant Shackleton almost died from ex- 
posure, but is now quite recovered. 
The party found that ranges of high 
mountains continued through Victoria 
Land. At the meridian of 160° foot- 
hills much resembling the Admiralty 
Range were discovered. 

The ice barrier is presumably afloat. 
It continues horizontal and is slowly 
fed from the land ice. Mountains, ten 
or twelve thousand feet high, were seen 
in latitude 82° south, the coast line con- 
tinuing at least as far as 83° 20’ nearly 
duesouth. A party ascending a glacier 
on the mainland found a new range of 
mountains. At a height of 9,000 feet 
a level plain was reached, unbroken to 
the west as far as the horizon. 

The scientific work of the expedition 
includes a rich collection of marine 
fauna, of which a large proportion are 
new species. Sea and magnetic obser- 
vations were taken, as well as seismo- 
graphic records and pendulum observa- 
tions.* A large collection of skins and 
skeletons of southern seals and sea birds 
has been made. A number of excel- 
lent photographs have been taken and 
careful meteorological observations were 
secured. Hxtensive quartz and grit ac- 
cumulations were found horizontally 
bedded in volcanic rocks. Lava flows 
were found in the frequently recurring 
plutonic rock which forms the basement 
of the mountains. 


*Tt will be interesting to note whether the 
disturbances of Mont Pelée and La Souffriére, 
and in Guatemala and Mexico during the past 
twelve months have been recorded by Captain 
Scott’s instruments or by any of the South 
Polar expeditions. 


THe NatrionaL GrocraPHic MaGaAZzine 


Before the arrival of the Worning the 
Discovery bad experienced some priva- 
tion, owing to part of the supplies hav- 
ing gone bad. ‘This accounted for the 
death of aJl the dogs. She has, how- 
ever, revictualled from the J/orning.,. 
and the explorers are now in a position. 
to spend a comfortable winter. 


RECORDS OF FARTHEST SOUTH 


The following table, compiled by Mr 
Cyrus C. Adams, gives the records of 
the most important Antarctic explorers. 
arranged in the order of the most south- 
erly points attained ; it gives the names. 
of the explorers, the year in which they 
reached their most southerly latitude, 
the latitude and longitude they attained, 
the method of reaching it, whether by 
sledge or ship, and the name of the ves- 
sel or vessels in their expeditions : 


Long. 


S. lat. | from Gr. 


80° 17/| 163° oo’ W. | Captain Scott, 1902, sledge, steam— 
er Discovery. 
165 oo W. | Borchgrev ink, fgoo, sledge,steam- 

| er Southern Gross. 

| Captain James Ross, 1842, ship,. 
sailing vessels Erebus and Ter— 
vor. 

Captain Weddell, 1823, ship, sail— 
ing vessels Jane and Beaufoy. 
Lieutenant De Gerlache, 1899, 

ship, steamer Belgica. - 
Captain James Ross, 1843, ship, 
sailing vessels Erebus and Ter- 
70V. 
Captain Cook, 1774, ship, sailing 
| vessels Resolution and Adven- 
ture. 


78 10 | 161 27 W. 


71 Io | 106 54 W. 


69 53| 92 19 W.| Captain .Bellingshausen, 1821, 
| | ship, sailing vessels I "ostok and 
| | Mirny. 

| 


Captain Biscoe, 1831, ship, sailing 
| vessels Zula and Lzveley. 
69 21| 2 15 W.|Captain Bellingshausen,. 1820, 
| ship, sailing vessels I ostok and 
Mivny. 
Captain Evensen, 1894, ship, sail- 
ing vessel Hertha. 
Captain Balleny, 1839, ship, sail- 
| ing vessels Eliza Scott and Sa- 
| brina. 
| Captain Larsen, 1893 
| ing vessel /ason. 
| 147 30 E.| Lieutenant Wilkes, 1840, 
| | sailing vessel Vincennes. 
67 51 | 39 40 W. | Captain Moore, 1845, ship, sailing 
| | vessel Pagoda. 
| Captain Cook, 1773, ship, sailing 
| vessels Resolution and Adven- 
ture. 


69 10 


69 00 | 172 Ir EB. 


68 10 | 60 oo W. ship, sail- 


ship, 


67 31 | 142 54 Ww. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


BUREAU OF FORESTRY 


HE plan which Maryland adopted 
some time ago of getting the 
cooperation of the Bureau of Forestry 
in niaking a detailed study of her forests 
is a most excellent one, and is equally 
available to all the states and about 
equally advantageous to them. With 
the help of the trained foresters of the 
Bureau of Forestry the Maryland Geo- 
logical Survey was able to make an 
inventory of the forest wealth of the 
state, finding out how much there is of 
it, the condition it is in, what benefit it 
is to the state, including its effects on 
stream flow and on agriculture; how 
much damage it has suffered, and how 
such damage may be lessened. The 
forests of Allegany, Cecil, Garrett, Cal- 
vert, and Harford counties have already 
been thoroughly studied by experts of 
the Bureau of Forestry, and reports for 
the first three have been published by 
the state. 


The work suggests the very great 
advantages of a similar cooperation be- 
tween other states and the Bureau of 
Forestry, although the examinations 
need not always be as detailed asin the 
case of Maryland. ‘The matter is ex- 
tremely simple and may be easily ar- 
ranged, and the results are valuable out 
of all proportion to the cost of such 
work to the states. The Bureau fur- 
nishes and pays the salaries of the ex- 
perts who make the examination, when 
the state has guaranteed their field ex- 
penses. The reports of the Bureau’s 
experts become the property of the 
state, provided they are credited, when 
published, to the Bureau. 

For a long time the Bureau of For- 
estry has been urging state investiga- 
tions of forest lands, because the results 
of such investigations are as valuable 
to the Bureau as to the states them- 
selves. Inquiries are constantly re- 


ceived from lumbermen and others 
regarding the forest resources of differ- 
ent states which the Bureau is unable 
to answer fully, because often no accu- 
rate studies of the regions have been 
made. Every bit of reliable informa- 
tion concerning the forests of the dif- 
ferent states and territories is welcomed 
by the Bureau as contributing to the 
sum of knowledge of the forest resources 
of the whole country on which the Bu- 
reatt must base its general forest policy. 

States like New York, Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire, Connecticut, Penn- 
sylvania, Minnesota, Michigan, and 
Wisconsin, which are working out for 
themselves some sort of forest policy, 
find it absolutely essential to take stock 
of their timber lands. Michigan has 
begun such an examination, through 
cooperation between the state forest 
commission, the university authorities, 
and the Bureau of Forestry. A study 
already made of 60,000 acres of forest 
preserve lands in northern Michigan 
by T. H. Sherrard, of the Bureau of 
Forestry, resulted in recommendations 
for fire-protection experiments and for 
tree planting, which have been submit- 
ted to the state legislature. California 
has appropriated $15,000 for an exami- 
nation of the forests of the state. A 
report on the forests of Texas has been 
prepared under direction of the Bureau 
of Forestry, and will probably form 
when published the basis for forest leg- 
islation in the state. Several years ago 
the forests of the northern part of Wis- 
consin were examined by Filibert Roth, 
of the Bureau, and his report was pub- 
lished by the Bureau and by the state. 
Prof. J. G. Jack, of the Bureau, two 
years ago made an examination of the 
forests of Vermont, and the work was 
continued more recently by C. D. Howe. 
Recommendations for forest preserves 
before being acted upon by the legisla- 
ture must be supported by reliable 


214 


studies of the forest growth on the areas 
which it is proposed shall be reserved. 
New Hampshire, alarmed by the heavy 
cutting in the White Mountains, has 
appropriated $5,000 for an examination 
of that region by the Bureau of For- 
estry, and an examination of the forest 
lands on Long Island may form a part 
of the summer’s work of the Bureau. 


THE NEW TRANS-CANADA RAILWAY 


HE projected new trans-continen- 
tal railway, for which the Do- 
minion Government recently granted a 
charter to the Trans-Canada Railway 
Company, is described by Mr E. T. D. 
Chambers in the Review of Reviews for 
April. Of the commercial importance 
of the new road Mr Chambers writes 
as follows : 

‘““The proposed line of the Trans- 
Canada Railway is one of the most 
direct which can span the continent. 
Starting from deep-water termini at 
Chicoutimi—the head of navigation on 
the Saguenay River—at Quebec, and 
at Montreal, it is destined to traverse 
and develop the best part of the newly 
discovered wheat and timber lands of 
northern Quebec in the James Bay dis- 
trict, to tap the whole of the James Bay 
and Hudson Bay trade, to open up the 


DAKOTA 


SCALE OF MILES 
oO 


100200 800400 5001065 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


valuable mineral country of northern 
Ontario, to cross the center of the rich 
wheat lands of the Peace River valley, 
and, finally, to reach one of the finest 
ports on the Pacific coast by a pass in 
the mountains only 2,000 feet high, as 
compared with 4,425 at Crow’s Nest, 
and with 5,400 at Kicking Horse. 

‘“The most cursory glance at the line 
laid down on the map for the new road 
reveals the directness of the route and 
and its far-northern location. 

‘“From Quebec to Port Simpson wa 
the T'rans-Canada Railway will be only 
2,830 miles, all of the route south of 
the northern limit of wheat, while the 
distance between the same points va 
the Grand Trunk Railway will be 
about 3,400 miles, and that from Quebec 
to Vancouver by the Canadian Pacific 
Railway is 3,078 miles. The expected 
saving in both distance and gradients 
by the proposed road over existing 
routes from Manitoba to the Canadian 
seaports on the St Lawrence is so great 
that the promoters have already under- 
taken to carry wheat from all points on 
its line in the Province of Manitoba to 
the ocean steamer at Chicoutimi, Mon- 
treal, or Quebec at rates which will 
save the farmers of Manitoba and the 
Northwest about seven cents per bushel 
on present cost of transportation to the 


Courtesy of Review of Reviews 


Map showing Route of new Trans-Canadian Railway 


GeocraPHic Nores 


seaboard. It isclaimed that this saving 
alone will much more than pay the total 
interest upon the cost of the road’s 
construction. 

““Tt is admitted on every hand that 
the terminal seaports of the Trans- 
Canada leave nothing to be desired. 
The harbor of Port Simpson is said to 
be the finest on the Pacific coast north 
of San Francisco. It has the alditional 
advantage of being much nearer to 
Yokohama than either Vancouver or 
San Francisco. Nottaway, on James 
Bay, which is to be reached by a branch 
of the main line, is the only deep-water 
harbor on the bay, and with some 
dredging might be used by vessels 
drawing thirty feet of water. The 
coast line of James and Hudson Bays, 
tributary to this railway, will be about 
four thousand miles. Chicoutimi, on 
the Saguenay, can be reached by vessels 
of any draught, and Quebec has mag- 
nificent docks, which have cost the 
government millions of dollars, with 
deep-water berth and elevator facilities 
for steamers of any draught. The new 
bridge now building over the St Law- 
rence, at Quebec, will enable the Trans- 
Canada road to make use of St John 
and Halifax for winter ports if ever 
those of Quebec and Chicoutimi should 
be blocked by ice.”’ 


EXPEDITION TO TURKESTAN 


R RAPHAEL PUMPELLY is on 
his way to Turkestan on a most 
important scientific mission. His jour- 
ney is for the purpose of looking over 
the ground in Turkestan with reference 
toa combined physico-geographical and 
archzeological exploration, if such fur- 
ther work should be found to be prom- 
ising as to results and practicable as 
regards execution. 

It has been his wish to see this done 
for forty years, and the results obtained 
by Russian surveys in recent years in 
connection with some parts of the prob- 


AS 


lem have strengthened his belief that 
the region offers a field of the greatest 
interest in connection with the relation 
between the growth and changes—so- 
cial, economic, and ethnological—of 
nations and measurable changes in their 
environment. 

The journey is made under the aus- 
pices of the Carnegie Institution. Prof. 
W. M. Davis, of Harvard, will have 
charge of the physical geographical part 
of the problem and will meet him on the 
Caspian early in May. Inthe meantime 
Dr Pumpelly has gone to St Petersburg 
to obtain the permission of the Russian 
Government, on whose willingness and 
sympathy all depends. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


HE Survey has begun an experi- 
ment which will doubtless prove 
of great practical service to the mining 
interests of the country. Heretofore the 
explorations of the geologists of the Sur- 
vey have not been available until one to 
two years after the explorations were 
made. ‘To prepare and to publish the 
complete report of a season’s work takes 
considerabletime. By the new arrange- 
ment such results of the season’s work as 
have direct economic importance are to 
be published at once in advance of the 
purely scientific investigations. This 
plan has been begun by the publication 
of a bulletin (No. 213) which summa- 
rizes the work of economic character 
done in 1902. ‘The bulletin, says Dr 
C. Willard Hayes in the preface, ‘‘is 
designed to meet the wants of the busy 
man, and is so condensed that he will 
be able to obtain results and reach con- 
clusions with a minimum expenditure 
of time and energy. It also affords a 
better idea of the work which the Sur- 
vey as an organization is carrying on 
for the direct advancement of mining 
interests throughout the country than 
can readily be obtained from the more 
voluminous reports.’’ 


216 


The bulletin contains 60 brief papers, 
of which the following may be men- 
tioned: ‘‘Investigation of Metalliferous 
Ores,’ byS. F. Emmons ; *‘ Placer Gold 
Mining in Alaska in 1902,’’ by Alfred H. 
Brooks ; ‘‘ Gold and Pyrite Deposits in 
the Dahlonega District, Georgia,’’ by 
E. C. Eckel ; ‘‘ Mineral Deposits of the 
Bitterroot Range and the Clearwater 
Mountains, Montana,’’ by W. Lind- 
gren ; ‘‘ Gold Mining in Central Wash- 
ington,’’ by George Otis Smith; ‘‘ Ore 
Deposits of Tonopah and Neighboring 
Districts, Nevada,’’ by J. E. Spurr; 
‘‘Ore Deposits of Butte, Montana,’’ by 
W. 4H. Weed; ‘‘ Lead, Zinc, and Fluor- 
spar Deposits of Western Kentucky,”’ 
by EK. O. Ulrich and W. S. T. Smith ; 
““Coal Fields of the United States,’’ by 
C. Willard Hayes. 


GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF NEW YORK 
CITY 


HE geological history of New York 

and its vicinity is discussed at 

great length, illustrated by numerous 

maps and pictures, in New York City 

Geologic Folio, No. 83, recently issued 
by the Geological Survey. 

Tens of thousands of years ago the 
greater part of the State of New York 
was covered by an immense glacier, 
similar in character to those now found 
in Switzerland and Alaska, but im- 
mensely greater in area and thickness. 
This ice sheet had gathered up in its 
course large quantities of sand, gravel, 
and mud. Part of this burden was 
pushed before the ice mass, and as the 
front of the glacier came to rest in the 
latitude of the city, the material pushed 
ahead of it was deposited there. When 
the glacier disappeared, owing to the 
coming on of a warmer climate, the 
mass of material deposited along its 
front became the familiar rounded hills 
of Long Island—the so called backbone 
of the island. 

After the disappearance of the ice 


THe NationaL GrocRaPpHic MAGAZINE 


sheet, the land in the vicinity of the 
city sank, so that the sea covered 
points now 100 feet above tide level. 
During this period of submergence, the 
great brick-clay beds along the Hudson 
River were deposited. The traveler on 
the Central or the West Shore road can 
now see these beds—near Croton Land- 
ing or Haverstraw, for example—far 
above the railroad tracks, but they were 
all formed under water. 

The next event in the history was, 
on the contrary, a gradual rising of the 
land until it stood considerably higher 
than at present. This was followed by 
a sinking just as gradual, which is still 
in progress: Along the coast of Long 
Island and New Jersey tree stumps may 
be seen under water. It is known that 
these have been covered by the sea 
within very recent times, and that the 
encroachment of the sea on the land is 
still going on. 

Many other subjects of interest are dis- 
cussed in this folio, which is the most in- 
teresting contribution to New York local 
geology ever published. It may be pur- 
chased from the U.S. Geological Survey, 
Washington, D. C., for 50 cents. 


The apparatus or box for developing 
photographic films without the aid of the 
dark-room, referred toin this Magazine 
in May, 1902, will prove of great service 
to explorers and travelers. The present 
season is the first opportunity that men 
in the field will have of using the ma- 
chine, asit was placed on the market too 
late last year. With the little box, 
which is no larger and not so heavy as 
a camera, one will be able to develop 
one’s films in the evening beside the 
camp fire, orif a specially fine landscape 
is seen which the traveler wishes to se- 
cure beyond all doubt, he may develop 
his snap-shot 1n broad daylight before 
moving on, provided water is at hand. 
The box, invented by Mr A. W. Mc- 
Curdy, is known asthe Kodak Develop- 
ing Machine. 


GEOGRAPHIC 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


N May 20 the National Geographic 
Society moves into its new home, 
the Hubbard Memorial Building, which 
has been erected as a memorial to Hon. 
Gardiner Greene Hubbard, the first 
president of the Society, by Mrs Hub- 
bard and her children and grandchil- 
dren. The Society has now a member- 
ship of 2,600 in the United States. 
Every state and territory is represented 
onthe membership roll. After May 20 
the address of the Society will be Hub- 
bard Memorial Building, Sixteenth and 
M streets, Washington, D. C. 


The Annual Excurston of the National 
Geographic Society will be on Saturday, 
May 9, to Annapolis, Maryland. Mem- 
bers and their friends will leave Wash- 
ington on a special train at 9 a. m., 
reaching Annapolis at about 10.15. 
The morning will be spent in witness- 
ing the naval drills and in inspecting 
the grounds. The Superintendent of 
the Naval Academy has very kindly 
detailed some members of the naval 
force to guide the party. Immediately 
after luncheon, which will be served in 
Carvel Hall at 12.30 p. m., Elihu F. 
Reiley, Esq., of Annapolis, will address 
the Society. He will review some of 
the more noted points of interest in the 
history of the famous old town. ‘Three 
of the four signers, from Maryland, of 
the Declaration of Independence were 


GEOGRAPHIC 


Antarctica. By Edwin Swift Balch, 
author of ‘‘ Mountain Exploration,’’ 
‘*Glaciéres or Freezing Caverns,’’etc. 
With three large maps. Pp. 230, 
7 x11inches. Philadelphia: Allen, 
Lane & Scott. 1902. 

The present volume presents a suc- 
cinct history of south polar exploration. 
It is written in most entertaining style, 
giving a graphic account of the battles 


LITERATURE AiG 


residents of Annapolis. After the 
address the party will visit the historic 
scenes in the town and return to Wash- 
ington late in the afternoon. The 
excursion committee of the Society con- 
sists of Colonel Henry F. Blount, Dr F. 
V. Coville, and Mr Otto J. J. Luebkert. 


Dr Jean Charcot is building an ice-re- 
sisting ship at Saint Malo, France. She 
is to carry 17 men and to have stowage- 
room for two years’ provisions. Dr 
Charcot plans to sail the middle of May 
for the island of Jan Mayen, and then 
to explore the region around Nova 
Zembla and Franz Josef Land. Itisa 
summer trip only, as he hopes to be 
back by the first of October of this year. 
Capt. de Gerlache, who commanded the 
Belgica South Polar Expedition of 1897- 
‘98, goes with him as the oceanogra- 
pher of the party. 


Mr Ellsworth Huntington, A. B., Be- 
loit, 1897, has lately been awarded the 
Gill memorial by the Royal Geograph- 
ical Society of London for his explo- 
rations of the Euphrates River while 
science teacher in Euphrates College, 
Harput, Turkey, 1897-1901. Since 
rg01, Mr Huntington has been a stu- 
dent in the Graduate School of Harvard 
University. He has just been appointed 
Research Assistant by the Carnegie In- 
stitution, and now goes with Professor 
Davis to join Professor Pumpelly for a 
summer of exploration in Turkestan. 


LITERATURE 


of the explorers of sixty years ago in 
their small sailing vessels. A volume 
that would unravel the tangled and im- 
perfect records of south polar explora- 
tion has long been needed. Mr Balch’s 
book is especially welcome because of 
the present interest in the far south, 
where four ably led and ably equipped 
expeditions are at work. 


The author aims to particularly em- 
€ 


218 


phasize the work done by American 
sailors in the Antarctics. Itis not gen- 
erally remembered that it was an Ameri- 
can, Lieut. Charles Wilkes, of the U.S. 
Navy, who first discovered the Antarc- 
tic continent, whose area is twice that 
of Europe. Lieutenant Wilkes, com- 
manding the ‘‘ United States Exploring 
Expedition’’ on a voyage around the 
world, under orders from the Secretary 
of the Navy, Hon. J. K. Paulding, 
“‘to penetrate within the Antarctic 
region,’’ sailed from Sydney, Australia, 
December 26, 1839. His squadron 
consisted of four small sailing vessels ; 
the sloop of war Vincennes, 780 tons, 
under his own command ; the sloop of 
war Peacock, 650 tons; the gun brig 
Porpoise, 230 tons, and the pilot boat 
Flying Fish, 96 tons. None of these 
ships were suitable for ice work, for 
not one of the vessels had planking, 
extra fastening, or other preparations 
for these icy regions. The pilot boat 
put back soon after starting, and several 
weeks later the Peacock also was forced 
to return when it was found that ‘‘ the 
ice had chafed the stem to within one 
inch and a half of the wood-ends of the 
planking.’’ The other two vessels 
kept on and sailed along the Antarctic 
coast for some 1,500 miles, when they 
returned toSydney. Lieutenant Wilkes 
reported to the Secretary of the Navy 
by letter on March 11: ‘‘It affords 
me much gratification to report that 
we have discovered a large body of 
land within the Antarctic Circle, which 
I have named the Antarctic Conti- 
nent, and refer you to the report of 
our cruise and accompanying charts, 
inclosed herewith, for full information 
relative thereto.”’ 

As Mr. Balch well says: 

“The cruise of Wilkes will remain 
among the remarkable voyages of all 
time. No finer achievement has been 
accomplished in the annals of the Arctic 
or of the Antarctic. With unsuitable, 
improperly equipped ships, amid ice- 


Tue NatrionaL GeocrRaPHic MAGAZINE 


bergs, gales, snow-storms, and fogs, 
Wilkes followed an unknown coast line 
for over fifteen hundred miles, a distance 
exceeding in length the Ural Mountain 
range. It is the long distance which 
Wilkes traversed which makes the re- 
sults of his cruise so important, for he 
did not merely sight the coast in one or 
two places, but he hugged it for sucha 
distance as to make sure that the land 
was continental in dimensions. The 
expedition noticed appearances of land 
on January 13; it sighted land almost 
surely on January 16, from 157° 46’ east 
longitude, and again more positively on 
January 19, from 154° 30’ east longi- 
tude, 66° 20’ south latitude. On Jan- 
uary 30 the size of the land was suffi- 
ciently ascertained to receive the name 
“Antarctic Continent,’ and this discov- 
ery of Wilkes is the most important dis- 
covery yet made in the Antarctic.’’ 

Impartial geographers in due time 
recognized the importance of Wilkes’ 
discovery, and in recognition of his 
work affixed the name of Wilkes Land 
to the portion of the Antartic Continent 
along which he coasted. 

In view of the great achievements of 
Lieutenant Wilkes, Mr Balch justly 
argues against the appropriateness of 
the suggestion of Sir Clements R. Mark- 
ham, President of the Royal Geograph- 
ical Society, that the Antarctic regions 
be divided into four quadrants, each 
covering ninety degrees of longitude 
and each named after an Englishman. 


The New York State Museum has pub- 
lished a geologic map of New York State 
exhibiting the structure of the state so 
far as known. ‘The map has been pre- 
pared under the direction of Frederick 
J. H. Merrill, State Geologist; the geo- 
graphic compilation is by C. C. Ver- 
meule, and the geologic drafting by 
A. M. Evans. The map may be pur- 
chased from the State Museum at Al- 
bany for $5, mounted on rollers, or for 
$3 in atlas form. 


Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5 P. M. Telephone, Main 471 


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| Alaskan Boundary 


By Hon. JOHN W. FOSTER 


Ex-Secretary of State, of the Joint High 
Commission, and Counsel of the United 
States in the Present Alaskan 
Boundary Commission 


With Twelve Maps 


The most authoritative presentation of the 
Alaskan boundary dispute that has ever been 
issued. Published in the National Geographic 
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THE >. 
’ NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC 


Vol. XIV JUNE, 1903 
CONTENTS 


THE TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KITE STRUCTURE. BY 
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. ILLUSTRATED 
w 
APPENDIX OF SEVENTY ILLUSTRATIONS OF KITES AND 
STRUCTURES USED BY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
w 
NOTES ON THE PRECEDING ILLUSTRATIONS, 
BY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 
w 
MR. ZIEGLER AND THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
v 
EXPLORATIONS IN ALASKA, 1903 
w 
GOLD DISCOVERIES IN ALASKA. -ILLUSTRATED 
w 
DECISIONS OF BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 
w 
MR. FOSTER’S “AMERICAN DIPLOMACY IN THE ORIENT?”’ 


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WILLIS Li MOORE. 2 52 ARLE LOUISE GARRISON | 


Chief of the Weather Bureau, Di Se ey ee Med of Phelps: School oF 
Pears Oe cee APs i Rte DC. ic. 


~ 


_ WASHINGTON, D. Cc. 


Wor. x<1Vic No. 6 


a 


tHE LEPRAHEDRAL 


WASHINGTON 


JuNE, 1903 


GEOGRAPIEIIC 
MAGA ZIUNIE, 


JP ROUN GOP ILS IN| IES, 


SRV TURES, 


By ALEXANDER 


GRAHAM BELL 


PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


Copyright, 1903, 


a communication to the Academy 

upon the subject of ‘‘ Kites with 
Radial Wings ;’’ and some of the illus- 
trations shown to the Academy at that 
time were afterwards published in the 
Monthly Weather Review. 

Since then I have been continuously 
at work upon experiments relating to 
kites. Why, I do not know, excepting 
perhaps because of the intimate connec- 
tion of the subject with the flying-ma- 
chine problem. 

We are all of us interested in aerial 
locomotion ; and I am sure that no one 
who has observed with attention the 
flight of birds can doubt for one mo- 
ment the possibility of aerial flight by 
bodies specifically heavier than the air. 
In the words of an old writer, ‘‘ We 
cannot consider as impossible that which 
has already been accomplished.’’ 

I have had the feeling that a properly 


IE N 1899, at the April meeting, I made 


*A communication made to the National 


Academy of Sciences in Washington, 


by the National Geographic Magazine 


constructed flying-machine should be 
capable of being flown as a kite; and, 
conversely, that a properly constructed 
kite should be capable of use as a fly- 
ing-machine when driven by its own 
propellers. JI am not so sure, however, 
of the truth of the former proposition 
as I am of the latter. 

Given a kite, so shaped as to be suit- 
able for the body of a flying-machine, 
and so efficient that it will fly well in a 
good breeze (say 20 miles an hour) when 
loaded with a weight equivalent to that 
of aman and engine; then it seems to 
me that this same kite, provided with 
an actual engine and man in place of 
the load, and driven by its own pro- 
pellers at the rate of 20 miles an hour, 
should be sustained in calm air as a fly- 
ing-machine. So far as the pressure of 
the air is concerned, it is surely imma- 
terial whether the air moves against the 
kite, or the kite against the air. 


1D), € 


April 23, 1903, revised for publication in the NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. 
+See Monthly Weather Review, April, 1899, vol. xxvii, pp. 154-155, and plate xi 


4 AO) 


Of course in other respects the two 
cases are not identical. A kite sustained 
by a 20-mile breeze possesses no mo- 
mentum, or rather its momentum is 
equal to zero, because it is stationary in 
the air and has no motion proper of its 
own; but the momentum of a heavy 
body propelled at 20 miles an hour 
through still air is very considerable. 
Momentum certainly aids flight, and it 
may even be a source of support against 
gravity quite independently of the press- 
ure of the air. It is perfectly possible, 
therefore, that an apparatus may prove 
to be efficient as a flying-machine which 
cannot be flown as a kite on account of 
the absence of wis viva. 

However this may be, the applicabil- 
ity of kite experiments to the flying- 
machine problem has fora long time 
past been the guiding thought in my 
researches. 

I have not cared to ascertain how high 
a kite may be flown or to make one fly 
at any very great altitude. The point 
I have had specially in mind is this: 
That the equilibrium of the structure in 
the air should be perfect; that the kite 
should fly steadily, and not move about 
from side to side or dive suddenly when 
struck by a squall, and that when re- 
leased it should drop slowly and gently 
to the ground without material oscilla- 
tion. I have also considered it impor- 
tant that the framework should possess 
great strength with little weight. 

I believe that in the form of structure 
now attained the properties of strength, 
lightness, and steady flight have been 
united in a remarkable degree. 

In my younger days the word ‘‘kite”’ 
suggested a structure of wood in the 
form of a cross covered with paper form- 
ing a diamond-shaped surface longer 
one way than the other, and provided 
with a long tail composed of a string 
with numerous pieces of paper tied at 
intervals uponit. Sucha kite is simply 
atoy. In Europe and America, where 
kites of this type prevailed, kite-flying 
was pursued only as an amusement for 


Tue NarionaL GerocrarpHic MAGAZINE 


children, and the improvement of the 
form of structure was hardly considered 
a suitable subject of thought for a scien- 
tific man. 

In Asia kite-flying has been for cen- 
turies the amusement of adults, and the 
Chinese, Japanese, and Malays have 
developed tailless kites very much supe- 
rior to any form of kite known to us 
until quite recently. 

It is only within the last few years 
that improvements in kite structure 
have been seriously considered, and the 
recent developments in the art have been 
largely due to the efforts of one man— 
Mr Laurence Hargrave, of Australia. 

Hargrave realized that the structure 
best adapted for what is called a ‘‘ good 
kite’’ would also be suitable as the basis 
for the structure of a flying-machine. 
His researches, published by the Royal 
Society of New South Wales, have at- 
tracted the attention of the world, and 
form the starting point for modern re- 
searches upon the subject in Europe 
and America. 

Anything relating to aerial locomotion 
has an interest to very many minds, and 
scientific kite-flying has everywhere 
been stimulated by Hargrave’s experi- 
ments. 

In America, however, the chief stim- 
ulus to scientific kite-flying has been the 
fact developed by the United States 
Weather Bureau, that important infor- 
mation could be obtained concerning 
weather conditionsif kites could be con- 
structed capable of lifting meteorological 
instruments to a great elevation in the 
free air. Mr Eddy and others in Amer- 
ica have taken the Malay tailless kite 
as a basis for their experiments, but 
Professor Marvin, of the United States 
Weather Bureau; Mr Rotch, of the Blue 
Hill Observatory, and many others have 
adapted Hargrave’s box kite for the 
purpose. 

Congress has made appropriations to 
the Weather Bureau in aid of its kite 
experiments, and a number of meteoro- 
logical stations throughout the United 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KITE STRUCTURE 


States were established a few years ago 
equipped with the Marvin kite. 

Continuous meteorological observa- 
tions at a great elevation have been made 
at the Blue Hill Observatory in Massa- 
chusetts, and Mr Rotch has demon- 
strated the possibility of towing kites at 
sea by means of steam vessels so as to 
secure a continuous line of observations 
all the way across the Atlantic. 


HARGRAVE’S BOX KITE 


Hargrave introduced what is known 
as the ‘‘cellular construction of kites.’’ 
He constructed kites composed of many 
cells, but found no substantial improve- 
mentin many cells over two alone ; and 
a kite composed of two rectangular cells 


( 


FIG. I—HARGRAVE BOX KITE 


separated by a considerable space is now 
universally known as ‘‘the Hargave box 
kite.’’ This represents, in my opinion, 
the high-water mark of progress in the 
nineteenth century ; and this form of 
kite forms the starting point for my 
own researches (Fig. 1). 

The front and rear cells are connected 
together by a framework, so that a con- 
siderable space is left between them. 
This space is an essential feature of the 
kite: upon it depends the fore and aft 
stability of the kite. The greater the 
space, the more stable is the equilibrium 
of the kite in a fore and aft direction, 
the more it tends to assume a horizontal 
position in the air, and the less it tends 
to dive or pitch like a vessel in a rough 
sea. Pitching motions or oscillations 
are almost entirely suppressed when the 
space between the cells is large. 


22 


Each cell is provided with vertical 
sides ; and these again seem to be essen- 
tial elements of the kite contributing to 
lateral stability. The greater the ex- 
tent of the vertical sides, the greater is 
the stability in the lateral direction, 
and the less tendency has the kite to 
roll, or move from side to side, or turn 
over in the air. 

In the foregoing drawing Ihave shown 
only necessary details of construction, 
with just sufficient framework to hold 
the cells together. 

It is obvious that a kite constructed as 
shown in Fig. 1 isa very flimsy affair. 
It requires additions to the framework of 
various sorts to give it sufficient strength 
to hold the aeroplane surfaces in their 
proper relative positions and prevent dis- 
tortion, or bending or twisting of the 
kite frame under the action of the wind. 

Unfortunately the additions required 
to give rigidity to the framework all 
detract from the efficiency of the kite: 
First, by rendering the kite heavier, so 
that the ratio of weight to surface is in- 
creased ; and, secondly, by increasing 
the head resistance of the kite. The 
interior bracing advisable in order to 
preserve the cells from distortion comes 
in the way of the wind, thus adding to 
the drift of the kite without contrib- 


uting to the //Z. 


A Bb c 


A rectangular cell lke 4 (Fig. 2) is 
structurally. weak, as can readily be 
demonstrated by the little force required 
to distort it into the form shown at 2. 
In order to remedy this weakness, inter- 
nal bracing is advisable of the character 
shown at C. 

This internal bracing, even if made of 
the finest wire, so as to be insignificant 
in weight, all comes in the way of the 


22V2, 


wind, increasing the head resistance 
without counterbalancing advantages. 


TRIANGULAR CELLS IN KITE CON- 
STRUCTION 


In looking back over the line «f ex- 
periments in my own laboratory, I 
recognize that the adoption of a trian- 
gular cell was a step in advance, con- 
stituting indeed one of the milestones 
of progress, one of the points that stand 
out clearly against the hazy background 
of multitudinous details. 

The following (Fig 3) is a drawing 
of a typical triangular-celled kite made 
upon the same general model as the 
Hargrave box kite shown in Fig. 1. 

A triangle is by its very structure 
perfectly braced in its own plane, and 
in a triangular-celled kite like that 
shown in Fig. 3, internal bracing of any 


FIG. 3 


character is unnecessary to prevent dis- 
tortion of a kind analogous to that 
referred to above in the case of the 
Hargrave rectangular cell (Fig. 2). 

The lifting power of such a triangular 
cell is probably less than that of a rect- 
angular cell, but the enormous gain in 
structural strength, together with the 
reduction of head resistance and weight 
due to the omission of internal bracing, 
counterbalances any possible deficiency 
in this respect. 

The horizontal surfaces of a kite are 
those that resist descent under the influ- 
ence of gravity, and the vertical surfaces 
prevent it from turning over in the air. 
Oblique aeroplanes may therefore con- 
veniently be resolved into horizontal 
and vertical equivalents, that is, into 
supporting surfaces and steadying sur- 
faces. 


Tue NarionaL GErocRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


The oblique aeroplane 4, for exam- 
ple (Fig. 4), may be considered as 
equivalent in function to the two aero- 
planes Gand C. The material compos- 
ing the aeroplane 4, however, weighs less 
than the material required to form the 
two aeroplanes 4 and C, and the frame- 


work required to support the aeroplane 
A weighs less than the two frameworks 
required to support & and C. 

In the triangular cell shown in Fig. 
5, the oblique surfaces ad, dc, are equiv- 
alent in function to the three surfaces 
ad, de, ec, but weigh less. The oblique 
surfaces are therefore advantageous. 

The only disadvantage in the whole 
arrangement is that the air has not as 
free access to the upper aeroplane ac, in 
the triangular form of cell as in the 
quadrangular form, so that the aeroplane 


a ec 


FIG. 5 


ac is not as efficient in the former con- 
struction as in the latter. 

While theoretically the triangular cell 
is inferior in lifting power to Hargrave’s 
four-sided rectangular cell, practically 
there is no substantial difference. So 
far as I can judge from observation in 
the field, kites constructed on the same 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN Kite STRUCTURE 


general model as the Hargrave Box 
Kite, but with triangular cells instead 
of quadrangular, seem to fly as well as 
the ordinary Hargrave form, and at as 
high an angle. 

Such kites are therefore superior, for 
they fly substantially as well, while at 
the same time they are stronger in con- 
struction, lighter in weight, and offer 
less head resistance to the wind. 


PERSPECTIVE VIEW 


DP ® 


and & (Fig. 7) may be constructed, as 
shown at C and J, with advantage, for 
the weight of the compound kite is 
thus reduced without loss of structural 
strength. In this case the weight of 
the compound kite is /ess than the sum 
of the weights of the component kites, 


END VIEW 


FIG. 6—COMPOUND TRIANGULAR KITE 


Triangular cells also are admirably 
adapted for combination into a com- 
pound structure, in which the aeroplane 
surfaces do not interfere with one 
another. For example, three triangular- 
celled kites, tied together at the corners, 
form a compound cellular kite (Fig. 6) 
which flies perfectly well. 

The weight of the compound kite is 
the sum of the weights of the three kites 
of which it is composed, and the total 
aeroplane surface is the sum of the 
surfaces of the three kites. The ratio 
of weight to surface therefore is the 
same in the larger compound kite as in 
the smaller constituent kites, considered 
individually. 

It is obvious that in compound kites 
of this character the doubling of the 
longitudinal sticks where the corners of 
adjoining kites come together is an un- 
necessary feature of the combination, 
for it 1s easy to construct the compound 
kite so that one longitudinal stick shall 
be substituted for the duplicated sticks. 

For example: The compound kites 4 


while the surface remains the same. 
If kites could only be successfully 
compounded in this way indefinitely 


A 


9 longitudinal sticks 


30 longitudinal sticks 


VX 


/ 
\ 


Cc 


6 longitudinal sticks 


1) 


IS longitudinal sticks 


FIG. 7 


we would have the curious result that 
the ratio of weight to surface would 


224 


diminish with each increase in the size 
of the compound kite. Unfortunately, 
however, the conditions of stable flight 
demand a considerable space between 
the front and rear sets of cells (see 
Fig. 6); and if we increase the diameter 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGAZzINE 


the character shown at B to prevent 
distortion under the action of the wind. 
The necessary bracing, however, not 
being in the way of the wind, does not 
materially affect the head resistance of 
the kite, and is only disadvantageous 
by adding dead load, thus increasing 
the ratio of weight to surface. 


THE TETRAHEDRAL CONSTRUCTION 
OF KITES 


Passing over in silence multitudinous 
experiments in kite construction carried 
onin my Nova Scotia laboratory, I come 


of our compound structure without in- 
creasing the length of this space we in- 
jure the flying qualities of our kite. 
But every increase of this space in the 
fore and aft direction involves ‘a cor- 
responding increase in the length of the 
empty framework required to span it, 
thus adding dead load to the kite and 
increasing the ratio of weight tosurface. 


Acute-angledtetrahedron Regular tetrahedron 


Right-angled tetrahedron 


FIG. 9—A. A TRIANGULAR CELL 
B. A WINGED TETRAHEDRAL CELL 


to another conspicuous point of ad- 
vance—another milestone of progress— 
the adoption of the triangular construc- 
tion 77 every direction (longitudinally as 
well as transversely) ; and the clear 
realization of the fundamental impor- 
tance of the skeleton of a tetrahedron, 
especially the regular tetrahedron, as 


— 
—— 
— 
a 


Obtuse-angied tetrahedron 


FIG, IO—WINGED TETRAHEDRAL CELLS 


While kites with triangular cells are 
strong in a transverse direction (from 
side to side), they are structurally weak 
in the longitudinal direction (fore and 
aft), for in this direction the kite frames 
are rectangular. 

Each side of the kite 4, for example 
(Fig. 8), requires diagonal bracing of 


an element of the structure or frame- 
work of a kite or flying-machine. 

Consider the case of an ordinary trian- 
gular cell 4 (Fig. 9) whose cross-section 
is triangular laterally, but quadrangular 
longitudinally. ; 

If now we make the longitudinal as 
well as transverse cross-sections trian- 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KITE STRUCTURE 


gular, we arrive at the form of cell 
shown at 4, in which the framework 
forms the outline of a tetrahedron. In 
this case the aeroplanes are triangular, 
and the whole arrangement is strongly 
suggestive of a pair of birds’ wings 


FIG. II—ONE-CELLED TETRAHEDRAL FRAME 


raised at an angle and connected to- 
gether tip to tip by a cross-bar (see B, 
Fig. 9; also drawings of winged tetra- 
hedral cells in Fig. 10). 

A tetrahedron is a form of solid 
bounded by four triangular surfaces. 

In the regular tetrahedron the bound- 
aries consist of four equilateral triangles 
and six equal edges. In the skeleton 
form the edges alone are represented, 
and theskeleton of a regular tetrahedron 
is produced by joining together six equal 


FIG. 12—FOUR-CELLED TETRAHEDRAL FRAME 


rods end to end so as to form four equi- 
lateral triangles. 

Most of us no doubt are familiar with 
the common puzzle—how to make four 
triangles with six matches. Give six 
matches to a friend and ask him to ar- 
range them so as to form four complete 
equilateral triangles. The difficulty 
lies in the unconcious assumption of the 
experimenter that the four triangles 
should all be in the same plane. The 
moment he realizes that they need not 
be in the same plane the solution of the 
problem becomes easy. Place three 
matches on the table so as to forma 
triangle, and stand the other three up 


22s 


over this like the three legs of a tripod 
stand. The matches then form the 
skeleton of a regular tetrahedron. 
(See figure 11.) 

A framework formed upon this model 
of six equal rods fastened together at 
the ends constitutes a tetrahedral cell 
possessing the qualities of strength and 
lightness in an extraordinary degree. 

It is not simply braced in two direc- 
tions in space like a triangle, but in 
three directions like a solid. If I may 
coin a word, it possesses ‘‘ three-dimen- 
stonal’’ strength; not ‘‘ two-dimen- 
sional’’ strength like a triangle, or 
‘‘one-dimensional’’ strength like a rod. 
It is the skeleton of a solid, not of a 
surface or a line. 


FIG. 13—SIXTEEN-CELLED TETRAHEDRAL 
FRAME 


It is astonishing how solid such*a 
framework appears even when composed 
of very light and fragile material ; and 
compound structures formed by fasten- 
ing these tetrahedral frames together at 
the corners so as to form the skeleton 
of a regular tetrahedron on a larger scale 
possess equal solidity. 

Figure 12 shows a structure composed 
of four frames like figure 11, and figure 
13 a structure of four frames like figure 
12: 

When a tetrahedral frame is provided 
with aero-surfaces of silk or other mate- 
rial suitably arranged, it becomes a tetra- 


226 


hedral kite, or kite having the form of 
a tetrahedron. 

The kite shown in figure 14 is com- 
posed of four winged cells of the regular 
tetrahedron variety (see Fig. 10), con- 
nected together at the corners. Four 
kites like figure 14 are combined in fig- 
ure 15, and four kites like figure 15 in 
figure 16 (at D). 

Upon this mode of construction an 
empty space of octahedral form is left 
in the middle of the kite, which seems 
to have the same function as the space 
between the two cells of the Hargrave 
box kite. The tetrahedral kites that 
have the largest central spaces preserve 
their equilibrium best in the air. 


FIG. 14—FOUR-CELLED TETRAHEDRAL KITE 


The most convenient place for the 
attachment of the flying cord is the ex- 
treme point of the bow. If the cord is 
attached to points successively further 
back on the keel, the flying cord makes 
a greater and greater angle with the 
horizon, and the kite flies more nearly 
overhead; but it is not advisable to carry 
the point of attachment as far back as 
the middle of the keel. A good place 
for high flights is a point half-way be- 
tween the bow,and the middle of the 
keel. 

In the tetrahedral kites shown in the 
plate (Fig. 16) the compound structure 
has itself in each case the form of the 
regular tetrahedron, and there is no 


Tue NarionaL GrocraPHic MaGAZINnE 


reason why this principle of combination 
should not be applied indefinitely so as 
to form still greater combinations. 

The weight relatively to the wing- 
surface remains the same, however large 
the compound kite may be. 

The four-celled kite 2, for example, 
weighs four times as much as one cell 
and has four times as much wing-sur- 
face, the 16-celled kite C has sixteen 
times as much weight and sixteen times 
as much-wing surface, and the 64-celled 
kite D has sixty-four times as much 
weight and sixty-four times as much 
wing-surface. The ratio of weight to 


FIG. I5—SIXTEEN-CELLED TETRAHEDRAL 
KITE 


surface, therefore, is the same for the 
larger kites as for the smaller. 

This, at first sight, appears to be some- 
what inconsistent with certain mathe- 
matical conclusions announced by Prof. 
Simon Newcomb in an article entitled 
“Ts the Air-ship Coming,’’ published 
in MWcClure’s Magazine for September, 
1901—conclusions which led him to be- 
lieve that “‘ the construction of an aerial 
vehicle which could carry even a single 
man from place to place at pleasure re- 
quires the discovery of some new metal 
or some new force.’’ 

The process of reasoning by which 
Professor Newcomb arrived at this re- 


22g, 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KiTE STRUCTURE 


SLIM IVACHHVULAL GHTISD-YNOA-ALXIS V ‘Cd ALIN IVUGHHVULAL GH TIHO-NHHLXIS V 
HLIM IVYCHHVULAL GHTINO-MN0A V ‘'G ‘TINO IVYCHHVALH. GHONIM V 


SHLIM IVACHHVULAL—9JI “DI 


2 
V 


228 


markable result is undoubtedly correct. 
His conclusion, however, is open to 
question, because he has drawn a gen- 
eral conclusion from restricted premises. 
He says: 


“Let us make two flying-machines exactly 
alike, only make one on double the scale of the 
other in all its dimensions. We all know that 
the volume, and therefore the weight, of two 
similar bodies are proportional to the cubes of 
their dimensions. The cube of two is eight : 
hence the large machine will have eight times 
the weight of the other. But surfaces are as the 
squares of the dimensions. The square of two 
is four. The heavier machine will therefore 
expose only four times the wing surface to the 
air, and so will havea distinct disadvantage in 
the ratio of efficiency to weight.’ , 


Tue NarionaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


a giant kite that should lift a man— 
upon the model of the Hargrave box 
kite. When the kite was constructed 
with two cells, each about the size of a 
small room, it was found that it would 
take a hurricane to raise it into the air. 
The kite proved to be not only incom- 
petent to carry a load equivalent to the 
weight of a man, but it could not even 
raise 7¢se//in an ordinary breeze in which 
smaller kites upon the same model flew 
perfectly well. I have no doubt that 
other investigators also have fallen into 
the error of supposing that large struct- 
ures would “necessarily be capable of 
flight, because exact models of them, 


FIG. I7—THE AERODROME KITE 


Professor Newcomb shows that where 
two flying-machines—or kites, for that 
matter—are exactly alike, only differing 
in the scale of their dimensions, the 
ratio of weight to supporting surface 
is greater in the larger than the smaller, 
increasing with each increase of dimen- 
sions. From which he concludes that if 
we make our structure large enough it 
will be too heavy to fly. 

This is certainly true, so far as it goes, 
and it accounts for my failure to make 


made upon asmaller scale, have demon- 
strated their ability to sustain them- 
selves in the air. Professor Newcomb 
has certainly conferred a benefit upon 
investigators by so clearly pointing out 
the fallacious nature of this assumption. 

But Professor Newcomb’s results are 
probably only true when restricted to 
his premises. For models exactly alike, 
only differing in the scale of their dimen- 
sions, his conclusions are undoubtedly 
sound ; but where large kites are formed 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KITE STRUCTURE 


by the multiplication of smaller kites 
into a cellular structure the results are 
very different. My own experiments 
with compound kites composed of trian- 
gular cells connected corner to corner 
have amply demonstrated the fact that 
the dimensions of such a kite may be 
increased to a very considerable extent 
without materially increasing the ratio 
of weight to supporting surface; and 
upon the tetrahedral plan (Fig. 16) the 
weight relatively to the wing-surface 
remains the same however large the 
compound kite may be. 

The indefinite expan- 
sion of the triangular con- 
struction is limited by the 
fact that dead weight in 
the form of empty frame- 
work is necessary in the 
central space between the 
sets of cells (see Fig. 6), 
so that the necessary in- 
crease of this space when 
the dimensions of the com- 
pound kite are materially 
increased—in order to pre- 
serve the stability of the 
kite in the air—adds still 
more dead weight to the 
larger structures. Upon 
the tetrahedral plan illus- 
trated in Figs. 14, 15, 16, 
no necessity exists for 
empty frameworks in the 
central spaces, for the 
mode of construction gives solidity 
without it. 

Tetrahedral kites combine ina marked 
degree the qualities of strength, light- 
ness, and steady flight ; but further ex- 
periments are required before deciding 
that this form is the best for a kite, or 
that winged cells without horizontal 
aeroplanes constitute the best arrange- 
ment of aero-surfaces. 

The tetrahedral principle enables us 
to construct out of light materials solid 
frameworks of almost any desired form, 
and the resulting structures are admi- 


229 


rably adapted for the support of aero- 
surfaces of any desired kind, size, or 
shape (aeroplanes or aerocurves, etc., 
large or small). 

In further illustration of the tetra- 
hedral principle as applied to kite con- 
struction, I show in figure 17 a photo- 
graph of a kite which is not itself tetra- 
hedral in form, but the framework of 
which is built up of tetrahedral cells. 

This kite, although very different in 
construction and appearance from the 
Aerodrome of Professor Langley, which 


FIG. IS—THE 


AERODROME KITE JUST RISING INTO THE AIR 
WHEN PULLED By A HORSE 


I saw in successful flight over the Poto- 
mac a few years ago, has yet a suggest- 
iveness of the Aerodrome about it, and 
it was indeed Professor Langley’s appa- 
ratus that led me to the conception of 
this form. 

The wing surfaces consist of hori- 
zontal aeroplanes, with oblique steady- 
ing surfaces at the extremities. The 
body of the machine has the form of a 
boat, and the superstructure forming 
the support for the aeroplanes extends 
across the boat on either side at two 
points near the bow and stern. ‘The 


230 


aeroplane surfaces form substantially 
two pairs of wings, arranged dragon-fly 
fashion. 


FIG. If7—AERODROME KITE IN THE AIR 


The whole framework for the boat 
and wings is formed of tetrahedral cells 


THe Nationa GrocraPHic MaGAZINne 


having the form of the regular tetra- 
hedron, with the exception of the diag- 
onal bracing at the bottom of the super- 
structure; and the kite turns out to 
be strong, light, and a steady flyer. 

I have flown this kite in a calm by 
attaching the cord—in this case a Ma- 
nila rope—to a galloping horse. Fig- 
ure 18 shows a photograph of the kite 
just rising into the air, with the horse 
in the foreground, but the connecting 
rope does not show. Figure Ig is a 
photograph of the kite at its point of 
greatest elevation, but the horse does not 
appear inthe picture. Upon releasing 
the rope the kite descended so gently 
that no damage was done to the appa- 
ratus by contact with the ground. 

Figure 20 shows a modified form of 
the same kite, in which, in addition to 
the central boat, there were two side 
floats, thus adapting the whole structure 
to float upon water without upsetting. 

An attempt which almost ended dis- 
astrously, was made to fly this kite ina 
good sailing breeze, but a squall struck 
it before it was let go. The kite went 
up, lifting the two men who held it off 
their feet. Of course they let go in- 
stantly, and the kite rose steadily in the 
air until the flying cord (a Manila rope 


FIG 


20—FLOATING KITE 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KITE STRUCTURE 


38 inch diameter) made an angle with 
the horizon of about 45° when the rope 
snapped under the strain. 

Tremendous oscillations of a pitching 
character ensued; but the kite was at 
such an elevation when the accident 
happened, that the oscillations had time 
to die down before the kite reached the 
ground, when it landed safely upon 
even keel in an adjoining field and was 
found to be quite uninjured by its rough 
experience. 

Kites of this type have a much 
greater lifting power than one would at 
first sight suppose. The natural as- 
sumption is that the winged superstruc- 
ture alone supports the kite in the air, 
and that the boat body and floats repre- 
sent mere dead-load and head resistance. 
But thisis far from being the case. Boat- 
shaped bodies having a V-shaped cross- 
section are themselves capable of flight 
and expose considerable surface to the 
wind. I have successfully flown a boat 
of this kind asa kite without any super- 
structure whatever, and although it did 
not fly well, it certainly supported itself 


231 


in the air, thus demonstrating the fact 
that the boat surface is an element of 
support in compound structures like 
those shown in figures 17 and 20. 

Of course the use of a tetrahedral cell 
is not limited to the construction of a 
framework for kites and flying-ma- © 
chines. It is applicable to any kind of 
structure whatever in which it is de- 
sirable to combine the qualities of 
strength and lightness. Just as we can 
build houses of all kinds out of bricks, 
so we can build structures of all sorts 
out of tetrahedral frames, and the struct- 
ures can be so formed as to possess the 
same qualities of strength and lightness 
which are characteristic of the individ- 
ual cells. J have already built a house, 
a framework for a giant wind-break, 
three or four boats, as well as several 
forms of kites, out of these elements. 

It is not my object in this communi- 
cation to describe the experiments that 
have been made in my Nova Scotia lab- 
oratory, but simply to bring to your at- 
tention the importance of the tetrahedral 
principle in kite construction. 


PRIN DIX 


Copyright, 1903, by the National Geographic Magazine 


Through the courtesy of Dr Bell the Nationa, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 
is able to present as an appendix to this article a series of some seventy illustra- 


tions of experimental forms of kites and structures used by Dr Bell. 


The 


illustrations were selected by the editor from several hundred pictures in Dr Bell’s 


notebooks. 


The pictures were taken and developed by Mr David George 


McCurdy, the photographer of his laboratory, with the exception of Plate III, 


which was taken by Mr F. Tracy Hubbard. 
tions were written by Dr Bell by request. 


The notes explaining the illustra- 


Tue Nationa GEocrapHic MAGAZINE 


QRD 


I ALVIg 


3 


4 


2 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN Kite STRUCTURE 


II ALvIg 


THe Nationa GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


234 


III 1uv1d 


235 


TRTRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KrTE STRUCTURE 


AY Siwid 


Tur Nationa, GrocraepHic MAGAZINE 


r 


2RG 


235 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KiTE STRUCTURE 


IA SLVIg 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


238 


TIA tauv1d 


439 


‘TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KITE STRUCTURE 


TILA SIV 1d 


240 Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MacGaZzINeE 


PLATE IX 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KITE STRUCTURE 241 


242 Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic Macazine 


PLATE XI 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN KiTE STRUCTURE 243 


PLATE XII 


244 THe Nationa GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


PLATE XIII 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN 


Kire STRUCTURE 


245 


PLATE XIV 


246 


PLATH XV 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN Kire STRUCTURE 247 


PLATE XVI 


248 


Tue Natrona, GeocrapHic MaGAZzINe 


NOES TON DEE PRECEDING ME Wisi AselO@INs 


By ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 


Copyright, 1903, by the National Geographic Magazine 


Plate 7.—1. Cellular framework for 
body of Multicellular Giant Kite. Al- 
though not built up of separate individ- 
ual cells, the frame is composed essentially 
of nine tetrahedral cells connected to- 
gether, corner to corner, at the tops, 
and held in position below by means of 
two parallel sledge runners braced diag- 
onally with wire. Total length, nine 


meters (29% feet). "The diagonal wires 


do not show in the picture, and it may be. 


possible that the photograph was taken 
before the rectangular part of the struct- 
ure was braced. 

2. Cellular framework shown in No. 1 
provided with two covered cells to con- 
vert it from mere dead weight to be 
carried by the superstructure into a real 
flying structure by itself. 

3. Cellular framework shown in No. 2 
supported in the air as a kite without 
any superstructure whatever. It is fly- 
ing by a rope attached to the front cell 
and has also a stern line to facilitate 
landing. 

4. One of the individual kites form- 
ing the cellular unit or element of the su- 
perstructure of the Multicellular Giant 
Kite (formed of two triangular kites 
one inside the other). The superstruct- 
ure was composed of seventy of the kites 
shown in No. 4 tied together at the 
corners, arranged in two sets of thirty- 
five kiteseach. "Theseventy kites were 
tested individually before being com- 
bined, and each was found to fly well 
by itself. 

Plate /7,—Different views of a Multi- 
cellular Giant Kite. The framework of 
the body is of stout material composed 
partly of tetrahedral cells, but the sledge 
runners at the bottom, being parallel, 


require diagonal bracing. This same 
body is shown in Nos. 1, 2, 3, Plate I. 
The superstructure is of light material 
and is composed of 70 triangular kites 
(like that shown in No. 4, Plate I) tied 
together at the corners and arranged in 
two sets—one at the bow, the other at 
the stern. 

Plate [1/.—The Multicellular Giant 
Kite rising into the air. The body 
broke as the kite went up, so that no 
photograph of the kite could be taken 
at a higher elevation.. The light super- 
structure seems to have escaped injury 
in the air, but a few of the constituent 
kites were broken by contact with the 
ground and the broken framework of 
the body: It is somewhat remarkable 
that the stout body sticks should have 
given way rather than the fragile sticks 
of the superstructure. 

Flate /V.—Giant kites, too large to 
pass through the double doors of the 
storage building, had to be put together 
in the open field. This proving to be 
impracticable without some sort of 
shelter from the wind, a wind-break 
became a necessity, and I determined to 
build one out of tetrahedral cells. After 
the necessary number of tetrahedral 
cells had been prepared they were put 
together in a single day, the ridge-pole 
being added subsequently. When the 
kite-flying experiments ceased for the 
season the framework was taken to 
pieces and the tetrahedral cells em- 
ployed in the construction of tetrahedral 
houses—covered with tent-cloth—for 
the shelter of sheep. The materials 
can be reassembled at any time desired, 
and the wind-break rebuilt in a few 
hours. ‘The photographs illustrate dif- 


TETRAHEDRAL PRINCIPLE IN Kire STRUCTURE 


ferent stages in the process of construc- 
tion : ® 
rt. Tetrahedral cell employed in mak- 
ing the framework of the wind-break. 
2, 3, and 4. The wind-break in pro- 
cess of construction. 


Plate |.—1. Wind-break completed, 


showing canvas rolled down. 

2. Wand-break showing canvas raised. 

3. End view of wind-break. 

4. Model of the framework for a tet- 
rahedral house. 

5. Tetrahedral nuts for fastening tet- 
rahedral frames together. 

Plate V7.—1. ‘The observation-house 
where the kite experiments are observed 
and noted. ‘The house itself is of the 
tetrahedral form. 

2. Front view of winged boat, the 
framework of which is constructed of 
tetrahedral cells. 

3. Another view of the winged boat. 

4. The winged boat in the air... 

Plate V7/,—1, A tetrahedral frame of 
tetrahedral cells, winged on the outside, 
with an internal aeroplane. 

2. A kite formed of two tetrahedral 
structures like that in No. 1 connected 
together by a framework composed of 
tetrahedral cells. 

3. The kite of No. 2 fitted with com- 
pound tetrahedral frames at either end 
converting the framework into the 
form of a boat. This same kite with 
the framework covered constitutes the 
winged boat shown in Nos. 2, 3, and 
4, Plate VI. 

4. The kite of No. 2 in the air. 

Plate \VI/I.—3. Non-capsizable kite. 
When from any cause the kite tips to one 
side the lifting power increases on the 
depressed side and diminishes on the ele- 
vated side, thus tending to right the kite. 

1. Non-capsizable kite flying from 
flag-pole. 

2. ‘Tetrahedral frame used in the con- 
struction of the winged boat shown in 
Plate VI; also used in the structures 
shown in Plate VII. 

4. Portions of the kiteshown in Plate 


249 


Wil, INO. B; 
together. 

Plate /X.—Photographs illustrating 
mode of studying the behavior of bodies 
in the air, whether these bodies are capa- 
able of supporting themselves in the air 
or not. ‘They are attached to the end 
of a bamboo pole by a cord sufficiently 
short to prevent them from dashing 
themselves to pieces upon the ground. 
A flag-pole is used for large kites, but 
a bamboo fishing rod is more convenient 
for testing the flying qualities of the 
smaller structures. Inthe cases shown 
in the plate, the cord is a manila rope, 
about 4% inch indiameter. Such a rope 
is too heavy for light kites, but smaller 
cords make so little impression on the 
photographic film that it is often diff- 
cult when such cords are used to un- 
derstand the conditions of an experi- 
ment from a photograph. 

1. Asingle set of triangular cells con- 
stituting a hexagonal figure with six 
interior radial wings. 

2. Asingle set of triangular cells con- 
stituting the figure of a triangle within 
a triangle. 

3. A kite with three sets of triangular 
cells. 

4. Kite shown in No. 3 flying from 
a bamboo pole. 

5. Two-celled triangular kite with 
rope attached to rear edge of front cell. 

6. Same kite shown in No. 5 flown 
by the bow. 

Plate X.—These photographs illus- 
trate experiments with kites formed 
partly of open tetrahedral cells, with 
the spaces between the cells covered. 

1. Kite with two pentahedral cells 
close together, each cell having three 
of its five faces covered. The rectan- 
gular part of the kite is braced diag- 
onally by means of tightly stretched 
wires. 

2. Same kite shown in No. 1 at a con- 
siderable elevation in the air. 

3. Similar kite with four pentahedral 
cells close together, each cell having 


in sections ready to be tied 


250 


three of its five faces covered. ‘The 
open spaces between the cells are tetra- 
hedral in form. 

4. Kite shown in No. 3 flying with 
its rectangular side up. 

5. Kite shown in No. 3 flying with 
its rectangular side down. 

6. Kite shown in No. 3 with the 
covering removed from the two mid- 
dle pentahedral cells—rectangular side 
down. 

7. Same kite shown in No. 6 flying 
with the rectangular side up. In this 
picture the short white line in the margin 
of the photograph indicates the direction 
of the flying cord. 

Plate X/,—Experiments to determine 
the relation of center of gravity to cen- 
ter of surface in a flying structure by 
shifting the cellular superstructure to 
different parts of the body frame. 

1. Superstructure over first body cell ; 
center of gravity too far back. 

2. Superstructure over second body 
cell. 

3. Superstructure over third body 
cell. 

4. Superstructure over fourth body 
cell ; center of gravity too far forward ; 
kite dived, superstructure smashed. 

Plate X//,—Experiments with kites 
having two sets of cells in the super- 
structure : 

I. Superstructure over second and 
fourth body cells. 

2. Just rising in the air. 

3. Flying by cord attached to front 
of first body cell. 

4. Bringing the kite down while 
anchored by. a bow-line. 

5. Superstructure over first and fifth 
body cells. Flying line attached to 
front of first body cell. ‘The apparent 
smallness of the kite shows that it is 
at a considerable elevation in the air. 

6. Kite being landed from a distance. 
Allowed to fall on a slack line, but 
checked momentarily as it nears the 
ground to reduce the rate of fall. 
Again allowed to fall and the cord 


Tue Narionat GerocrapHic Macazine 


reeled in so as to givethe kite headway 
at the moment of contact with the 
ground, thus causing the stern to strike 
only a glancing blow. A bow: line, how- 
ever, isa great safeguard against injury. 

Plate XT/1,—The photographs illus- 
trate the nature of experiments made 
to test the effect of varying the number 
and position of sets of triangular cells 
upon a body framework : 

t. Two sets of cells near bow, and 
one stern set as a tail. 

2. Kite shown in No.1 at a great 
elevation in the air. 

3. Same kite shown in No. 1 with the 
stern set of cells removed. The photo- 
graph shows very clearly the bow-line 
used to facilitate the handling of kites. 
in the air. Flying by the bow-line re- 
duces enormously the strain upon the 
structure when the kite first begins to: 
rise in the air. This strain gradually 
eases off as the kite rises, and when it 
is at a considerable elevation the bow- 
line is made slack while the kite is held 
by the other, or ‘‘ flying-cord,’’ which 
in this case is attached to the rear edge 
of the first set of cells, when the kite 
rises still higher. The bow-line is 
again used in bringing the kite down, 
for the body then becomes practically 
horizontal as it nears the ground. 
This is advantageous, for it reduces the 
risk of injury to the kite upon landing. 
In good flying kites anchored by the 
bow the bow-line can be overrun by 
the hand, or by a grooved roller, until 
the kite is reached and grasped by the 
hand without allowing the kite to touch 
the ground at all. 

5. Same kite shown in No. 3, but the 
sets of cells separated as far as possible 
upon the body. 

6. Kite shown in No. 5 nearing the 
ground after an experiment. It is 
flying by the bow-line, and the photo- 
graph shows the other line blown back 
by the wind, or perhaps held in the 
hands of an assistant. 

4. A kite with eight sets of cells. 


THe ZIEGLER Potar ExPEDITION 


‘The spaces between the sets are not suf- 
ficient to constjtute the kite a good 
flyer. The sets of cells interfere with 
one another. 

Plate X/V'.—1. Multicellular kite hav- 
ing 6 sets of cells in the superstructure. 

3.. Multicellular kite in the air. 

2. Giant kite having three 12-sided 
cells, each with 6 radial wings. 

4. Giant kite flying from pole. 

Plate X\.—1. Hexagonal kite with 
six radial wings, loaded in the middle 
with an adjustable weight. ; 

3. Hexagonal kite flying from a flag- 
staff. ; 

2. Twelve-sided kite with six radial 
wings, of giant construction. 


251 


4. Twelve-sided kite flying from a 
flagstaff. 

Plate XV'7.—Paddle- Wheel Kite. 1. 
Paddle-wheel kite on the ground. 

2. Side view of same kite in the air. 

« 3. Another photograph of paddle- 
wheel kite in the air. 

4. End view of paddle-wheel kite. 
In most of the photographs the flying- 
line is invisible, but in above photo- 
graphs and others the visibility has been 
improved by tying pieces of colored cloth 
at intervals upon it, as in the tail of am 
old-fashioned kite, thus enabling the 
direction of the cord for a short distance 
from the kite to be visible as a dotted 
line upon the photograph. 


MR ZIEGLER) AND THE NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY | 


T the invitation of Mr William 

A Ziegler, the National Geo- 

graphic Society is to direct the 

scientific work of the north polar expe- 

dition which Mr Ziegler has equipped 

and which is known as the Ziegler Polar 
Expedition. 

The National Geographic Society has 
chosen as its official representative on 
the expedition Mr William J. Peters of 
the U. S. Geological Survey. Mr Pe- 
ters will be second in command, and 
will have entire charge of all the scien- 
tific observations and determinations of 
the party. Mr Peters is one of the 
splendid corps of explorers of the U.S. 
Geological Survey. He has made sev- 
eral notable journeys in Alaska, the 
most remarkable of which was in 1go1, 
when, as leader of a Survey party, he 
made a sledge journey with dogs of 
1,600 miles.* 

The expedition sails from Trondhjem, 

*See NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, 
vol. 12, 1901, p. 399. 


Norway, about June 20, on the steam 
yacht America, which has been thor- 
oughly overhauled and strengthened 
during the past year. They will ad- 
vance as far north as the ship can take 
them, and will then land on Franz Josef 
Land, where the winter will be passed. 
As soon as light returns in 1904 the 
march for the Pole will begin. The 
America stays with the party. In June, 
1904, an auxiliary vessel, under com- 
mand of Wm. S. Champ, will go north 
to carry additional supplies and to escort 
the expedition home. 

The commander of the expedition is 
Mr Anthony Fiala, of Brooklyn, N. Y- 
Mr Fiala was second in command of the 
first Ziegler expedition. He is about 
33 years of age, strong and vigorous, 
aud would seem to have all the require- 
ments for a successful leader of an arctic 
expedition. 

Mr Ziegler has shown himself an 
enthusiastic and generous supporter 
of arctic exploration. When his first 


DID 


expedition returned unsuccessful in 
reaching the North Pole, though it had 
cost him several hundred thousand dol- 
lars, he at once announced that he 
would send out a second expedition. 
Everything that experience or thought 
could suggest has been provided. ‘The 
party will take 30 Siberian ponies with 
them. ‘The last expedition had a num- 
ber of these ponies and found them 
much superior to dogs. They are both 
stronger and more enduring than dogs, 
and while they eat more they can carry 
more in proportion. The ponies can 
go anywhere that a dog can go and are 
more reliable, for when they come to a 
hummock they do not dart in different 
directions and upset the sledges. Hay 
to feed the ponies is being carried in 
solidly compressed bales. Besides the 
ponies, 200 dogs are also taken. 

On the first Ziegler expedition eight 
nationalities were represented, and great 
confusion resulted because of the varie- 
ties of language. Every member of the 
present expedition is an American by 
birth or naturalization; most of the 
men have had experience in arctic work 
before, either in Alaska, Hudson Bay, 
or on whaling vessels. The sailing 
master, Captain Coffin, as captain of a 
whaler has for 25 years battled with 
the arctic ice. Mr Russell W. Porter, 
of the scientific staff, has had service in 
Greenland with Peary and also accom- 
panied the first Ziegler expedition. Mr 
Francis Long was a member of the 
Greely expedition of 1881—'84. 

Mr Ziegler’s ambition to plant the 
American flag at the North Pole is 
patriotic and laudable. The National 
Geographic Society is glad to indorse 
his worthy object and to wish him and 
his gallant men success. 

The instructions of the National Geo- 
graphic Society to Mr Peters regarding 
the scientific work to be done are sum- 
marized in the following report to Pres- 
ident Graham Bell by MrG. K. Gilbert, 
Chairman of the Research Committee : 


THe NartionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


MAY 19, 1903. 
Dr ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, 
President National Geographic Society. 

DEAR Sir: The Committee on Re- 
search was instructed by the Executive 
Committee of the Society to consider 
the possibilities of scientific work by 
and under the direction of Mr Peters 
during the Ziegler Arctic Expedition, 
and to recommend the lines of investi- 
gation to be followed. I regret to say 
that the committee has not been able 
to hold a meeting, on acccunt of the 
engagements of its members, and espe- 
cially the absence of several members 
from the city. J have, however, con- 
ferred personally with Dr Merriam, 
General Greely, and Admiral Melville, 
of my colleagues on the committee, and 
also with Professor Moore, Chief of the 
Weather Bureau; with Mr Tittmann, 
Superintendent of the Coast Survey, 
and with other officers of the Coast 


' Survey, and as a result of these confer- 


ences I feel warranted in making cer- 
tain recommendations concerning the 
lines of research which may best be 
undertaken by Mr Peters. 

The considerations influencing the se- 
lection of these lines are (1) that Mr 
Peters will have very little skilled assist- 
ance; (2) that during the long night 
to be spent in camp on Franz Josef 
Land there will be abundant time at 
his disposal, including his own and that 
of various assistants, and (3) that in 
the journey northward his attention 
will be quite fully occupied in the work 
of determining the route and position 
of the party, and with such executive 
work as may fall to his share. I think 
it well, therefore, that he limit his plan 
for research chiefly to such lines as can 
be best followed on the land, and that he 
restrict his attention in the main to such 
studies as his education and previous 
training best qualify him to conduct. 

Gravity.—It is recommended that a 
determination of gravity be made by 
pendulum observations at the winter 


THe ZIEGLER Potar ExPEDITION 


camp. With thesassistance of Mr Hay- 
ford and other officers of the Coast Sur- 
vey, Mr Peters is now making: prepara- 
tion for that work. 

Tides.—It is recommended that sys- 
tematic tidal observations be made at 
the base camp, a continuous record 
being maintained through a complete 
lunation and so much longer as may be 
necessary to eliminate any irregularities 
occasioned by storms. For this work 
Mr Peters is receiving instructions from 
Dr Harris, of the U. S. Coast Survey. 

Magnetism.—It is recommended that 
systematic observations of the usual 
magnetic elements be made at the base 
camp. Itis important that the declina- 
tion be observed, if possible, at some 
point where a previous record has been 
made, and also that the magnetic station 
of the present expedition be definitely 
marked and recorded, so that at any 
future time it may be possible to reoc- 
cupy the station. The determination 
of declination will have immediate 1m- 
portance in connection with the main 
purpose of the expedition, because if 
the Pole is approached the compass will 
afford the most trustworty means for 
orientation and for the determination of 
the proper route to be followed in re- 
turning. Conversely, the traverse of 
the journey on the ice, taken in con- 
nection with astronomical observations, 
will throw light on the position and cur- 
vature of the magnetic meridians in the 
polar region—a field of inquiry which 
has heretofore been occupied only in a 
theoretic way. 

Aurora.—t\n connection with system- 
atic magnetic work, it is desirable to 
make systematic observation of auroras, 
recording phenomena with some ful- 
ness. The question whether the au- 
rora is ever accompanied by sound is 
one to which attention may well be 
given. 

Meteorology.—It is the opinion of Pro- 
fessor Moore tHat in the present state 
of meteorologic investigation the regu- 


Ab) 8) 


lar observation at Franz Josef Land of 
pressure, temperature, and surface wind, 
while desirable, is less important than 
the determination of the height, drift, 
and velocity of clouds. Professor Moore 
has undertaken to prepare instructions 
for such a determination, 

‘Sea-Depth.—In the judgment of Ad- 
miral Melville, it is very desirable that 
soundings be made during the north- 
ward journey, especially as the results 
of such soundings on the outward jour- 
ney may aid in the determination of 
position during the return journey. 
They will, of course, make contribution 
to the general body of geographic in- 
formation, and supplement the impor- 
tant determinations made by Nansen. 
Whether it will be practicable to carry 
on the sledges any apparatus adequate 
to reach considerable depth is a ques- 
tion which may advantageously be con- 
sidered on shipboard. 

Other Observations. —It is not recom- 
mended that any special preparation be 
made for observations in geology, zool- 
ogy, or botany, although the geologist 
will welcome samples of prevailing 
rocks, and especially any fossils which 
may be found, and the zoologist will be 
giad to have record of birds and mam- 
mals seen, so far as the members of the 
party may be able to identify them. 

Yours very truly, 
G. K. GILBERT, 
Chairman Research Committee. 


The names of the members of the ex- 
pedition and their duties follow : 


Commanding officer, Anthony Fiala, 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Field Department 

Chief of scientific staff and second in 
command, William J. Peters, Washing- 
fone Dyes 

First assistant scientific staff, Russell 
W. Porter, Springfield, Mass. 

Meteorologist, Francis Long, Brook- 
lyn, N. Y. 


254 


Surgeon, Dr George Shorkley, Cam- 
den, Me. 

Assistant surgeon, Chas. L. Seitz, 
Evansville, Ind.; assistant surgeon, 
J. Colin Vaughn, Forest Hill, N. J. 

Veterinarian, H. H. Newcomb, Mil- 
ford, Mass. 

Quartermasters in charge of sledge 
equipment, Charles E. Rilliet, St. Louis, 
Mo.; Jefferson F. Moulton, Second Cay- 
alry, U. S. Army. 

Third assistant quartermaster, R. R. 
Tafal, Philadelphia, Pa. 

Fourth assistant quartermaster, John 
W. Truden, N. Y. city, N. Y. 

Assistants in quartermaster’s depart- 
ment, John Vedow, Mass.; Pierre 
Le Royer. 

Deck Department 


Captain, Edward Coffin, Edgartown, 
Mass. 

First officer, Edward Haven, Lynn, 
Mass. 

Second officer, James W. Nichols. 

First quartermaster, Allen W. Mont- 
rose, Lowell, Mass. 

Second quartermaster, William R. 
Meyers, Boston, Mass. 


Tue Nationa, GEoGraPeHic MAGAZINE 


Third quartermaster, Franklin Cow- 
ing, New Bedford, Mass. 

Fourth quartermaster, Chas. Kunold, 
New York. 

Seamen, Harry Burns, Dunkirk, 
N. Y.; D. S. Mackiernan, Dorchester, 
Mass. ; Alfred Beddow, London, Eng. ; 
Clarence W. Thwing, Boston, Mass. ; 
Elijah L. Perry, New Bedford, Mass. ; 
Emil Meyer, New York; John Duffy, 
Waltham, Mass. ; William Ross, New 
York. 

Assistant steward, Spencer W. Stew- 
art, Brooklyn, N- Y. 

Cook, George H. Smith, Somerville, 
Mass. 

Boy, James Dean, New Bedford, 
Mass. : 


Engineer's Department. 

Chief engineer, H. P. Hartt, Ports- 
mouth, Va. 

First assistant engineer, EK. L. Varney, 
Camden, Maine. 

Second assistant engineer, 
Vedow, Boston, Mass. 

Firemen, George D. Butland, Brook- 
lyn, N. Y.; Charles E. Hudgins, 
Norfolk, Va. 


Anton 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


T a meeting of the Board of Man- 
agers of the National Geographic 
Society on May 15, Dr Alexander Gra- 
ham Bell tendered his resignation as 
President of the Society. Dr Bell stated 
that owing to the pressure of work he 
found it impossible to give to the Society 
the thought that the position of Presi- 
dent demanded. The resignation of 
President Bell was accepted by the 
Board with profound regret, to take 
effect on the election of his successor. 
Dr Bell was appointed chairman of a 
committee of three to consider and nom- 


inate asuccessor. The other two mem- 
bers of the committee, appointed by the 
President, are Dr Willis L. Moore, Chief 
U. S. Weather Bureau, and Mr G. K. 
Gilbert, U. S. Geological Survey. As 
no election will be made until the fall, 
Dr Bell will continue as President of the 
Society for some months. 

At the same meeting of the Board, 
Vice-President W J McGee was ap- 
pointed chairman of the Committee on 
the International Geographical Con- 
gress which is to meet in America in 
1904 under the auspices of the National 
Geographic Society. General Greely, 
the original chairman of this committee, 


GerocraPHic Nores 


was compelled t8 resign the chairman- 
ship because of ill health and the pres- 
sure of official duties. 

At an adjourned meeting of the Board 
held May 18 resolutions were unani- 
mously passed indorsing the movement 
to bring the remains of James Smithson, 
the founder of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, to America, and inter them in the 
grounds of the Institution. 

The Geographical Society of the Pa- 
cific has taken similar action. 


ALASKAN SURVEYS, 1903 


HE operations of the United States 
Geological Survey in Alaska dur- 
ing the coming field season will be along 
the same general lines that have been 
followed during the last few years, ex- 
cept that the work contemplated in- 
volves rather more detailed mapping 
and investigation. ‘The general policy 
of devoting special attention to regions 
of greatest activity in mining affairs will 
be continued. 

It is planned to complete the surveys 
of the Seward Peninsula, which has 
been under investigation for several 
years. ‘This peninsula embraces what 
are up to the present time the most im- 
portant gold placers of the entire terri- 
tory. Mr Arthur J. Collier, with an 
assistant, will make a special study of 
the geology and mineral resources of 
the southern and northwestern part of 
the peninsula. It is intended that his 
work should supplement that of previous 
years, and that he should pay special 
attention to the developments that have 
been made during the last season. It 
is hoped that by this means further 
light will be thrown on the occurrence 
of placer gold in the various forms of 
deposits in which it is found. To Mr 
D. C. Witherspoon will be entrusted 
the topographic survey of the north- 
eastern part of the peninsula, including 
the gold fields adjacent to Deering. ‘The 
geologic work of this area will be duly 
arranged for. 


255) 


Two parties will be organized for 
surveys in the Yukon gold district. 
One party, led by Mr T. G. Gerdine, 
* will make a topographic survey extend- 
ing from the Fortymile region westward 
to the Tanana River and embracing as 
wide a belt as length of season and cli- 
matic conditions will permit, a special 
effort being made to reach and map the 
lower Tanana gold fields. "The second 
party will be in immediate charge of 
Mr L. M. Prindle, and will have for its 
field of operations the Fortymile and 
Birch Creek regions and the newly dis- 
covered gold fields near the lower Ta- 
nana. ‘This party will make a geolog- 
ical investigation and an examination 
of the mineral resources of the region. 
These two parties, it is expected, will 
obtain much information in regard to 
the new gold fields on the Tanana, which 
are reported to be very rich. 

The investigation of the stratigraphy 
of the Yukon, begun by Mr Collier dur- 
ing the last season, will be continued by 
Dr Arthur Hollick. Dr Hollick will 
visit a number of points on the Upper 
and Lower Yukon with a view to de- 
termining the stratigraphic position of 
the coal-bearing horizons by _ special 
studies of local areas and extensive col- 
lections of fossils. 

The Kayak Island and Controller Bay 
petroleum and coal fields. will be the 
subject of a preliminary examination by 
.Mr Frank C. Schrader. It is planned 
that Mr Schrader shall spend about two 
months in this region, with a view to 
ascertaining the extent of these im- 
portant deposits and their probable 
economic value. Late in the season 
Mr. Schrader will make a more hasty 
examination of some of the petroleum 
and coal localities on Cook Inlet. 

The investigations in southeastern 
Alaska will be made by Dr Arthur C. 
Spencer, who, with an assistant, will 
make a special study of the Juneau 
mining district and map the geology of 
the adjacent region. For this purpose 
a detailed topographic map was made 


256 


THe NatrionaL GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Alaska 


in 


for Gold 


rospecting 


2 


GerocraPHic Nores 


. 


during the last'season. DrSpencer will 
also make preliminary examinations of 
some of the other important mining dis- 
tricts of southeastern Alaska. 

Mr Alfred H. Brooks, who has charge 
of the geologic work in Alaska, will go 
to Juneau in the early part of the season, 
and later will join Dr Hollick’s party 
on the Upper Yukon for some strati- 
graphic studies. Later still, in com- 
pany with Mr Prindle, he will visit the 
Tanana gold district. The month of 
September will be spent by him in the 
Nome and adjacent gold fields of the 
Seward Peninsula. 


GOLD DISCOVERIES IN ALASKA 


STRIKE of rich placer diggings 
has been made in Alaska, in 
the Circle City mining division, on 
the tributaries of the Tanana River, 
a district in which for several years past 
American miners have made a thor- 
ough search for good placer-mining 
deposits without success. . The present 
strike seems to be one of more than 
ordinary importance, and has caused 
a stampede of miners from Dawson City 
and other districts to the new fields. It 
is unsafe to predict too much, but the 
general opinion seems to be that a large 
and productive placer field in American 
territory has at last been struck. Circle 
City is practically deserted as a result 
of the rush. The Eagle-Circle route is 
reported to be the best means of reach- 
ing the Tanana from Dawson, as the 
trails by Fortymile and Goodpasture 
are unbroken, and no supplies are avail- 
able. From Forty mile to the new dig- 
gings the distance is 160 miles. 

The region of the recent discovery is 
not yet surveyed, though the United 
States Geological Survey has made 
several explorations in the vicinity. 
These explorations are a part of a 
general system of preliminary surveys 
which the Geological Survey has been 
carrying onin Alaska as rapidly as pos- 


45 7] 


sible during the last five years. A re- 
.port entitled ‘‘A Reconnaissance in the 
White and Tanana River Basin,’’ by 
Alfred H. Brooks, contains the results 
of a reconnaissance made in 1898. It 
describes briefly the geography, geol- 
ogy, climate, and timber of the region, 
and, so far as the character of the in- 
vestigation would permit, deals with the 
mineral resources. The party left the 
coast at Skagway in March, 1898, and 
made its way inland for about 100 miles 
with sleds; then, after waiting until the 
ice on the river broke up, it continued 
down the Lewes and Yukon rivers in 
canoes to the mouth of White River. 
That river had never before been as- 
cended in boats because of its mad, 
rushing current. After six weeks of 
hard labor the party succeeded in drag- 
ging canoes and supplies up White 
River 150 miles, where a portage was 
found to Tanana waters. The down- 
stream trip to the mouth of the Tanana, 
a journey of about 600 miles, occupied 
amonth. The party finally reached the 
Yukon after a canoe journey of 1,600 
miles. 

A second report by Mr Brooks deals 
with the Upper Tanana Basin and is 
entitled ‘‘A Reconnaissance from Pyra- 
mid Harbor to Eagle City, Alaska.”’ 
This also treats of the geography, geol- 
ogy, and mineral resources of the region 
traversed by the party. It is based on 
a journey made with pack horses from 
the coast at Pyramid Harbor, south- 
eastern Alaska, to the Yukon, near 
the international boundary. ‘The trip, 
which occupied about three months and 
was made on foot, aggregated about 600 
miles. So arduous was the journey that 
only five of the fifteen horses that started 
with the party survived the trip. The 
chief difficulty with which the party had 
to contend was the many turbulent rivers 
that had to be crossed. Three boats 
were built by the party during the course 
of the summer. 

A third journey was made by Mr 


258 


Brooks through the Tanana Basin dur- 
ing thesummerof 1902. Thisextended 
through tothe Yukon from Cook Inlet, 
by the Lower Tanana Valley. The re- 
port on this expedition is now in prep- 
aration. 


DECISIONS OF THE U. S. BOARD ON 
GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 


From January to May, Both Inclusive, 1903 


Agamok ; lake, Lake County, Minnesota (not 
Agamiak). 

Alvada ; post-office and railroad station, Seneca 
County, Ohio (not Alveda). 

Balsam; mountain in the Catskills, Green 
County, New York (not Sheril nor Sherill). 

Bantam; river, tributary to Shepaug River from 
the northeast, Litchfield County, Connect- 
icut (not Shepaug nor East Brauch She- 
paug). 

Barrack; mountain in Canaan, Litchfield 
County, Connecticut (not Garruck). 
Basswood ; lake, partly in Lake County, Min- 
nesota, lying across the international 
boundary line (not Bassimenau, Bois, 

Blane, nor Whitewood). 

Beeslick ; brook and pond in Salisbury, Litch- 
field County, Connecticut (not Beaslick, 
l’eeslake, Bees Lick, Beestick, Beezelake, 
nor Nancook ) 

Belle Ayr; mountain and post-office, Ulster 
County, New York (not Belle Air, Belle 
Ayre, nor Belleayre). 

Berne ; post-office, town, and village, Albany 
County, New York (not Bern). 

Caroga ; creek, Fulton and Montgomery Coun- 
ties; lake and town, Fulton County, New 
York (not Garoga). 

Cary; lake in Whitney Preserve, Hamilton 
County, New York (not Carey nor Carry). 

Castac ; creek, railroad station, and valley, 
Los Angeles County, California (not Cas- 
taic nor Castiac). 

Cheshnina; river, tributary to Copper River 
from the east, Alaska (not Cheshni). 
Chumstick ; creek, Chelan County, Washing- 

ton (not Chumpstick). 

Cypress ; lake, partly in Lake County, Minne- 
sota, lying across the international bound- 
ary line (not Otter Track). 

Deceiper ; creek, Clark County, Arkansas (not 
Decepier, Deceyper, nor Deciper). 

Elliott ; creek, tributary to the Kotsina from 
the east, Alaska (not Elliot). 

Gabimichigami ; lake, Lake County, Minne- 
sota (not Gobbemichigamine, Gobbemichi- 
gomog, Michigammie, etc ). 

Gakona ; river, tributary to Copper River from 
the west, Alasi.a (not Gako). 


Tue Nationa GeocraPpHic MAGAZzinE 


Germano, post-office and village, German 
Township, Harrison County, Ohio (not 
German, Jefferson, nor New Jefferson). 


Grays ; island in marsh near Elliott, Dorches- 
ter County, Maryland (not Blackwalnut). 

Jackson ; hole, post-office, and valley, Uinta 
County, Wyoming (not Teton). Sonamed, 
in 1828, by Captain Sublette, after his part- 
ner, David E. Jackson, of St Louis, Mo. 
In recent years erroneously alleged to 
have been named after a notorious convict 
and outlaw, ‘‘ Teton Jackson.”’ 

Jellison ; cape, Penobscot Bay, Waldo County, 
Maine (not Gellison). 

Kawishiwi; river, Lake County, Minnesota 
(not Cashaway nor Kashaway). 

Kekekabic ; lake, Lake County, Minnesota 
(not Cacaquabic, Hawk, nor Sparrow 
Hawk). 

Las Choyas; valley near San Diego, San Diego 
County, California (not Chollas, La Challa, 
nor Las Chollas). 

Levisa; river, the west fork of Big Sandy 
River. Kentucky and Virginia (not Lavisa 
nor Louisa). 

Los Penasquitos ; canyon and land grant, San 
Diego County, California (not Las Penas- 
quitas, Paguay, Penasquitos, nor Pinas- 
quitos). 

Marshepaug; river, tributary to Shepaug 
River, draining from Tyler Pond, Litch- 
field County, Connecticut (not East Branch 
Shepaug, Marshapogge, nor Mashepaug). 

McAdoo ; creek, Posey County, Indiana (uot 
Macadoo.. 

Mule ; mountains, southeastern Arizona (nat 
Mule Pass). 

New Riegel ; post-office and railroad station, 
Seneca County, Ohio (not New Reigel, 
New Riegle, etc.). 

Ogishkemuncie; lake, Lake County, Minnesota 
(not Kingfisher, Ogishki Muncie, etc. ). 

Peking; city, capital of China (not Pekin). 
This is a reversal of the decision Pekin, 
rendered February 2, 1897. 

Pinyon ; flat, Riverside County, 
‘not Pinon nor Pifion). 

Pipe ; creek, Erie County, Ohio (not Oganse, 
Ogontz, nor Pike). 

Pleito ; creek, Kern County, California (not 
Plata, Plato, nor Pieto). ° 

Put-in ; bay in South Bass Island, Lake Erie, 
Ottawa County, Ohio (not Put in nor 
Putin ). 

Put-in-Bay ; post-office, township, and village, 
Ottawa County, Ohio (not Put in Bay nor 
Put-in Bay). 

Ribeyre; island in Wabash River, 
County, Indiana (not Cut-off). 
San Clemente; cauyon, near La Jolla, San 
Diego County, California (not Clemente 

nor San Clemento). 


California 


Posey 


GEOGRAPHIC 


® 


San Dieguito; land grant and valley, San 
Diego County, California (not San Diegito 
nor San Digitas). 

San Emigdio; creek, land grant, and moun- 
tain, Kern County, California (not San 
Emedio, ‘San Emidio, nor San Emidion). 

Shawangunk ; mountains, Ulster County, New 
York (not Millbrook). ; 

St Peters ; creek and district, Somerset County, 
Maryland (not St Peter nor St Peter’s). 

Tia Juana; post-office and river, San Diego 
County, California (not Tijuana). 

Tyler; pond int Goshen, Litchfield County, 
Connecticut (not Marshapauge, Tyler’s, 
nor West Side). 

Wachocastinook ; brook, or creek in Salisbury, 
Litchfield County, Connecticut (not Mount 
Riga nor Washinee). 

Wangum ; lake in Canaan, Litchfield County, 
Connecticut (not Waugum, Wangem, nor 
Wungum). 


GEOGRAPHIC 


American Diplomacy in the Orient. 
By John W. Foster, author of a Cen- 
tury of American Diplomacy. Pp. 498. 
gx6inches. Boston and New York: 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1903. 
This book covers a field which no 

other volume had even attempted to 

more thantouch. ‘There existed a mass 
of literature upon the subject, but it was 
utterly disconnected and the investigator 
was forced to seek for it laboriously at 
many different sources. To understand 
any one phase of American diplomatic 
achievement in the East required difh- 
cult and perplexing research. Inconse- 
quence few Americans have attempted 
to grasp more than its mere outline. 

‘The reading public is now put in posses- 

sion of an authoritative and comprehen- 

sive work—a work, too, which presents 
every advantage of a compendium, but 

a compendium enlarged and enriched by 

a chaste literary style. We have here 

an eucyclopeedic treatise wherein each 

part is conjoined with every other part, 
and wherein the whole composes a his- 
tory majestic by the grandeur and world- 
wide influence of the deeds it recounts. 


LITERATURE 


459) 


Wells ; island in St Lawrence River, Jefferson 

¢ County, New York (not Wellesley). 

Wenatchee ; lake, post-office, precinct, rail- 
road station, river, and town, Chelan 
County, Washington (not Wenache nor 
Wenatche). This is a reversal of the 
decision Wenache, rendered in 1892. 

Weoka ; creek, post-office, and precinct, El- 
more County, Alabama (not Wewoka, 
Wewokee, Wiwoka, etc. ). 

Wolf; creek, Sandusky and Seneca Counties, 
Ohio (not Raccoon nor West Branch 
Wolf). 

Wononpakook ; pond in Salisbury, Litchfield 
County, Connecticut (not Long, Wanom- 
pakook, Wonon Pakok, nor Wononpo- 
kok). 

Wononskopomuc ; lake in Salisbury, Litch- 
field County, Connecticut (not Furnace, 
Wononscopomoc, Wononskopomus, etc ). 


(gh Ey ReAMIE URGE 


The opening chapter is preliminary, 
describing early European relations with 
the Far East. It emphasizes a fact, com- 
monly unknown or forgotten, that Asi- 
atic prohibition of foreign intercourse 
dates from hardly earlier than the begin- 
ning of the seventeenth century and was 
mainly due to ‘‘ the violent and aggress- 
ive conduct ’’ of the European discover- 
ers and adventurers who visited those 
countries in the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries. ‘The chapter concludes with 
the failure of the British expedition 
under Lord Aimherst,then governor gen- 
eral of India, to establish diplomatic rela- 
tions with China. ‘That was in 1815. 


The following twelve chapters, be- 
ginning with ‘‘America’s First Inter- 
course ’’ and ending with ‘‘ The Spanish 
War: Its Results,’’ summarize the first 
treaties with China and set forth the 
stages in that empire’s increasing de- 
crepitude, describe the opening, the 
transformation, and the enfranchise- 
ment of Japan, trace the development 
of the Hawaiian Islands and their an- 
nexation to the United States, picture 
the emergence of the anomalous kingdom 


260 Tue NatTionaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


Hon. John W. Foster 


of Korea, explain the imbroglio over 
the Samoan Islands, and touch upon 
the Spanish War only so far as it thrusts 
upon us a territorial and political herit- 
age beyond the Pacific. The book con- 
cludes with a graphic presentation of 
the national factors now involved in the 
solution of the far eastern problem and 
with the expression of a confident as- 
surance that the Union, which has met 
so well the emergencies of the past, will 
meet equally well the emergencies of 
the future. 

In the compressed limits of 438 pages, 
to exhaust each specific topic discussed 
was an impossible task and such as 
no writer would attempt. The author 
says in his preface: ‘‘ The treatment in 
a single volume of a subject embracing 
several countries and covering more 
than a century has required brevity of 
statement and the omission of many 
interesting facts.’’ But amaster’s hand 
is shown in seizing upon and presenting 
essential facts and in throwing into dis- 
tinctness not only those main facts 
but the minor facts therewith intimately 
connected. Hence there are left upon 
the reader’s mind impressions photo- 
graphic in their accuracy and clearness. 
Furthermore, the numerous footnotes 
are carefully chosen and of value to ad- 
ditional investigation. ‘There is not one 
that is superfluous, not one that does 
not cast added light upon the text. 

An appendix of 36 pages contains 
the Protocol of September 7, 1901, be- 
tween China and the Treaty Powers, 
the Emigration Treaty of 1894 between 
China and the United States, the Treaty 
of 1894 between the United States and 
Japan, the Joint Resolution for annex- 
ing the Hawaiian Islands to the United 
States, the Samoan Treaty of 1899 be- 
tween the United States, Germany, and 
Great Britain, the Protocol of August 
12, 1898, and the Treaty of 1898 be- 
tween the United States and Spain. 
To the joy of the student’s heart, there 
is an admirable index of 22 pages. 

Certain personal characteristics of the 


GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 


261 


author invest his book with a peculiar 
charm. By international consent he is 
to be ranked among the ablest and most 
successful diplomats America has pro- 
duced. In the special field of diplo- 
macy concerning which he writes he has 
borne a distinguished and a prominent 
part. Yet in this volume he makes no 
reference to himself. It is doubtful if 
the pronoun I can be found from begin- 
ning toend. His name is sought in the 
index in vain. When forced by the 
exigencies of his narrative to refer to 
anything he has himself done he hides 
his personality under the indefinite 
designation of ‘‘a citizen of the United 
States.’’ Such: reticence concerning 
one’s own exploits is rare among the 
men who have represented the United 
States inthe East. But Getieral Foster 
is as unassuming as he is great. 

Another personal characteristic is re- 
vealed in his fairness and simplicity of 
statement. ‘The spirit of apology or 
advocacy or partizanship is silent here. 
Calmly, dispassionately the facts are 
marshalled and the story told. A strik- 
ing example among many which might 
be cited is afforded in Chapter VIII, 
upon ‘‘Chinese Immigration and Ex- 
clusion.’’ This chapter deals with a 
burning question, over which Chinese 
immigrant and American laborer have 
been wrought to frenzy. On no politi- 
cal subject has there been more intem- 
perance of feeling and expression. Yet 
all that could be said on either side is 
here put so comprehensively, so com- 
pactly, so forcibly, that either party 
might be content with this exposition 
of itscase. Such capability of intimate 
appreciation and balanced statement is 
not wholly the result of wide experience 
and profound acquaintance with the 
motives which move men. It is a con- 
sequence far more of personal tempera- 
ment and habit of mind. 

When American enterprise first 
knocked at the doors of China, Japan, 
and Korea, those countries—with the 
exception of a few trading ports, difh- 


262 


cuit of access and hemmed in by almost 
prohibitive restrictions—were locked in 
seemingly impenetrable seclusion. This 
book is the tale of how American diplo- 
macy, more than that of any other peo- 
ple, more perhaps than that of all other 
peoples, broke through the obstacles 
and brought those oriental States into 
international relations. Blunders were 
more than once committed. More than 
one American consul or envoy was in- 
capable or unfortunate. But the great 
majority of our representatives per- 
formed their parts well. They brought 
to their posts the diplomacy of practical 
men, diplomaed in the school of experi- 
ence and sure to win over the obstructive 
astuteness of the East. 

But it should always be remembered 
that along the path to final results the 
sailor, the merchant, the missionary, led 
the way. Moreover, from their ranks 
were recruited many who afterward 
in official station merited distinction. 
Such men were Major Shaw, Edmund 
Roberts, Townsend Harris, Peter Par- 
ker, H. N. Allen, S. Wells Williams, 
and others deserving mention. Major 
Shaw was supercargo on 7he Empress 
of China, the first vessel to bear the 
starry flag across the Pacific. He be- 
came our first consul at Canton, ‘‘a 
man worthy the honor.’’ Edmund 
Roberts, of New Hampshire, was a 
large ship-owner and merchant. Later 
accredited envoy to Siam, Muscat, and 
Annam, he became ‘‘the pioneer in 
the oriental diplomacy of the United 
States.’ ‘Townsend Harris, a super- 
cargo and merchant from New York, 
was the first consul general in Japan, 
‘‘negotiator of the first commercial 
treaty with Japan,’’ no less a bene- 
factor of that Empire than had been 
Commodore Perry. ‘The medical mis- 
sionary, Peter Parker, was twice chargé 
d'affaires, then commissioner, then effi- 
cient minister to China. The medical 
missionary, H. N. Allen, has more than 
justified his appointment under two 
Presidents as minister to Korea. ‘The 


THe NationaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


name of S. Wells Williams, missionary 
of the American Board, author of ‘‘ The 
Middle Kingdom,’’ for twenty years 
secretary of legation and often chargé 
d’affaires at Pekin, is almost a house- 
hold word. 

It would be a congenial task to linger 
in the further discussion of ‘‘American 
Diplomacy in the Orient,’’ even as it is 
delightful to linger over its perusal. 
However lengthy the review, much will 
be left unsaid. 

The tale this book tells is weighty, 
yet, made up of peril, tact, persistence, 
daring, it has the fascination of ro- 
mance. Itis the record of a diplomacy 
wherein honest dealing, truth, and self- 
respect were dominant factors. It is 
the record of a diplomacy which the 
diplomacy of any other country may be 
in vain challenged to surpass in ability, 
in influence, and in success. The un- 
varnished recital of its deeds casts honor 
upon the American name and inspires 
in the American reader a sentiment of 
gratitude and pride. 

Epwin A. GROSVENOR, 
Amherst College, Massachusetts. 


The Braziltan Government has provided 
for the mapping of its territory on a sci- 
entific basis. Last year the Congress ap- 
propriated the necessary funds forcomn- 
mencing the work, and a commission, 
of which Colonel Francisco de Abreu 
Lima is president, was to leave Rio 
early in May for the State of Rio Grande 
do Sul to make a reconnaissance of 
the first zone to be triangulated. The 
scheme, as far as at present outlined, 
includes the measurement of basis at 
Porto Alegre and Uruguayana, and the 
connection of these two cities by trian- 
gulation. This will give anarc of about 
six and one-quarter degrees of longitude 
in about latitude thirty degrees south. 
The Superintendent of the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey has been requested 
by the commission to supervise the prep- 
aration of the necessary tapes and ac- 
cessories for the measurement of bases. 


lage ALASKA FRONTIER | 


By THOMAS WILLING BALCH, A.B. (Harvard) 
Member of the Philadelphia Bar 


ES BOOK, gives a complete account up to 1903 of all 

the facts relating to the Alaska boundary question, in- 
cluding the negotiations preceding the Anglo-Russian Treaty 
of 1825, the subsequent official acts of the various interested 
governments, the purchase of Alaska by the United States, the 
International Law governing the case, and reproductions of 
twenty-eight maps, some of them very rare. To collect the 
material upon which this book is based the author traveled 
as far as Alaska and St. Petersburg. 


“In Mr. Balch’s book the main threads of evidence are woven into a conclusive 
whole, which should be in the hands of all interested, and the publication of which 


is of general importance at the present time.’’— 7he New York Evening Post, April 15, 
1903. 

“This book . . . constitutes, all things considered, the most effective, ac- 
cumulative, and crushing blow thus far dealt the Canadian claim.’’—/%1/ladelphia 


Press, February 22, 1903. 


‘“The work of Mr. Balch . . . is by far the fullest and best presentation of 
the American case which has ever been made, and will be ot great value to the counsel 
who will appear for the United States before the Boundary Commission.’’— Seattle Post- 
Intelligencer, April 2, 1903. 


“If there is any one who has any doubt as to the validity of the American 
claim to all the sinuosities of the coast north of 54-40, it is safe to say that the doubt 
could never survive a careful reading of ‘The Alaska Frontier.’ ’’— Daily Alaskan, 
Skagway, April 16, 1903. 

212 pages, large Svo. 
Bound in cloth, price $2.00 net 


eae ANE Geo SCO IT 


1211-1213 CLOVER ST. PHILADELPHIA, PA. 


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sending a few cents in stamps. 
These forty-eight pages make the 


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Summer School, founded in 1875 at 
Amherst College. 


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JULY, 1903 No. 7 
CONTENTS 


THE UNITED STATES; ITS SOILS AND THEIR PRODUCTS. 
BY H. W. WILEY, Ph, D., LL.D, CHIEF CHEMIST, U. S, 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ILLUSTRATED 
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Wor xvi No.) 7 


L 


EE UNE Disa A DES; 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGRAPIENC 
MAGA ZIUNIE, 


JuLy, 1903 


oe 


ITS SOILS AND 


IDIBUGIUR IPIROIDIG ns 


By H. W. Wi ey, 


CHIEF CHEMIST, U. S. 


R DAY, in saying that I had 
D come to take the place of the 
Secretary of Agriculture, re- 
minds me of the remark of Oliver Wen- 
dell Holmes, on an occasion when by 
reason of the illness of Emerson he was 
sent to one of the lyceums to fill Emer- 
son’s appointment. The president of 
the lyceum stated that they had ex- 
pected to listen to Mr Emerson, but by 
reason of illness they would not have 
that pleasure. However, Mr Holmes 
had kindly consented to fill his place. 
Whereupon Mr Holmes on rising re- 
marked that he hardly hoped to fill the 
place of Mr Emerson, but would at- 
tempt to rattle around in it a little; so 
to-day I cannot hope to fill the place of 
the Secretary of Agriculture, but will 
make as much noise in the large space 
unoccupied as possible. 


ORIGIN OF THE SOIL 


One of the oft-repeated theories con- 
cerning the origin of our earth is that at 
a remote period all the matter of which 


isis 1D)a5 J egg NOM 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


the earth consists at present was a part 
of the incandescent gas which filled the 
space now assigned to our solar system. 
As the cooling of this mass of gas pro- 
gressed vortex rings were formed of 
gaseous matter. ‘These on further cool- 
ing broke and rolled together, forming 
the sun, the planets, and the satellites 
of our present system. ‘The next con- 
dition of the incandescent gas was in- 
candescent liquid, which came in due 
season as the time rolled by. Finally, 
by the further process of cooling, a 
crust was formed upon the surface of 
these liquids which was the beginning 
of the solid surface of the earth. This 
crust would naturally be of the same 
composition as the liquid matter from 
which it was formed—practically ho- 
mogeneous in character and consisting 
of the mineral matters which could only 
exist at that temperature. 

In speaking of the soils of the United 
States, I would like to trace briefly their 
evolution from this primeval crust, 
which was the first ice formed on this 


*Address before the National Geographic Society, February 18, 1903 


264 


globe. What have been some of the 
more active forces which have broken 
up this congealed mineral matter and 
brought it into the present condition in 
which we see the surface of our globe? 
First of all I will speak of the action of 
water, which is and has been one of the 
chief disintegrating agents acting upon 
the earth’s surface. At the time the 
first crust was formed over the surface 
of the earth all the water which now 
exists must evidently have been above 
the earth’s surface in the form of steam. 
As the cooling progressed this steam 
tended to condense in the form of clouds 
and finally water. Thus the original 
rain falling upon the hot surface of the 
earth was at once converted again into 
steam, but not until it had started a cer- 
tain solvent action. Water has been 
termed the universal solvent, and it is 
not difficult to see how active it must 
have been at the time of which I speak. 
The sudden cooling of the surface at the 
spot where a drop of water struck would 
tend to crack it, the hot water would 
dissolve quickly any of the substances 
soluble therein, and this continual bom- 
bardment of boiling water must have 
had a tremendous effect in disintegrating 
the original crust formed over the earth’s 
surface. As the earth continued to cool 
and diminish in size, the original surface 
wrinkled and formed hills and valleys. 
The continual descent of water would 
finally permit some of it to remain in the 
liquid state upon the earth’s surface, 
and this coursing down the valleys con- 
tinued the disintegration, both by solu- 
tion and attrition. The original mineral 
matters were thus brought into a form 
of solution or suspension, and, seeking 
their natural chemical affinities, began 
to form from the first igneous rocks the 
first sedimentary rocks. ‘These are the 
rocks which we now see in strata, cover- 
ing the greater part of the earth’s sur- 
face. All these stratified rocks must 
have been laid down under the water, 
and thus weare convinced that the sur- 


Tue Narronat GrocRAPHic MAGAZINE 


face of the earth during the long period 
of the formation of the soil must have 
been alternately above and below the 
surface of the water collected upon the 
globe. 


INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC LIFE 


When organic life came upon the 
earth’s surface a new disintegrating 
force was introduced. Organic life, even 
in its smallest forms, such as bacteria, 
acts with vigor in decomposing rocks. 
The larger forms, which produce root- 
lets, help this disintegrating process 
along. ‘These roots find their way into 
crevices of the rocks, and tend to split 
them open and to admit water below 
their surface. Certain bacteria also 
tend to oxidize the nitrogen of the air 
and form nitric acid, known under the 
common name of agua fortis, which has 
a vigorous solvent action on many kinds 
of rock. 


DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOIL 


In the process of further cooling, ice 
was formed, and this also tended to 
have a disintegrating influence. Water 
in passing into ice increases in volume, 
and this tends.to break and disintegrate 
many bodies. Rock saturated with water 
thus tends to break up when the water 
becomes ice. During the periol of the 
ice age when large glaciers moved over 
the earth’s surface, the crushing and 
grinding effects of the ice had much to 
do with disintegrating the rock. The 
vast areas of glacial drift which form 
the soil of many of our Western States 
are evidences of the gigantic scale on 
which these ice mills of the gods slowly 
ground the stones of the earth into soil. 
When the soil is formed by the decay 
of rocks without the transporting action 
of water or ice being active, the soils 
are said to be formed zz szfz. When 
the products of soil disintegration are 
carried by water and deposited along 
the banks of the streams or at their 
mouths, the soil is called alluvial. When 


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products of rock disintegration are car- 
ried by moving ice and deposited there- 
from,they are called glacial drift. When 
they are carried by wind, as is often the 
case, they are called zolian soils. The 
above are some of the varieties of soils 
as determined by their method of for- 
mation. Soils are also classified in re- 
gard to their chemical characters ; as, 
for instance, when formed from the 
decay of carbonate of lime, they are 
called limestone soils. When arising 
from the disintegration of granite, they 
are called granitic soils. When formed 
chiefly from particles of silex, they are 
called sandy soils. When consisting 
mostly of silicate of alumina, they are 
called clay soils, and so on. 

But for agricultural purposes the soil 
consists of more than decayed mineral 
matter. By the decay of organic mat- 
ter there is introduced into the soil the 
element, humus, which is one of its 
principal characteristics from an agri- 
cultural point of view. ‘The soil is 
filled with millions of organisms of a 
lower form, without whose activity the 
growing of crops would be impossible. 
The soil, therefore, not only contains 
the mineral matters which are neces- 
sary to sustain the life of plants, but 
also those organic elements without 
which these mineral matters would not 
be available for plant growth. The 
three principal mineral foods of plants 
are potash, phosphoric acid, and nitro- 
gen. Lime, magnesia, iron, and many 
other mineral substances are also found 
in plants, but these are not absolutely 
essential to plant growth. If, however, 
either nitrogen, potash, or phosphoric 
acid be entirely removed from the en- 
vironment, it is impossible to produce a 
matured plant. The great bulk of the 
material of which plants are composed 
is not drawn, however, from the soil, 
but is taken from the air and water. 
Great as have been the chemical achieve- 
ments of man, nochemist has yet arisen 
whose skill can be compared to that of 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGaAZINE 


the plant itself. Any chemist who 
to-day, with all the appliances which 
science has placed at his disposal, could 
make by synthesis the various organic 
compounds of which plants are princi- 
pally composed would rival the fame of 
Berzelius, Liebig, Hoffman, Berthelot, 
Gibbs, or Remsen. ‘Thus the soil must 
be regarded as that part of plant life 
which furnishes the chemical support 
for the growing plant, supplies it with 
the mineral foods essential to its growth 
and maturity, and favors best those 
conditions which enable the plant cell 
to elaborate the organic matters of 
which the matured plant is chiefly 
composed. 


THE UNITED STATES AN AGRICUL- 
TURAL COMMUNITY 


Having thus briefly described how the 
soil originated, we pass to the considera- 
tion of the second part of the subject, 
namely, the crops which grow therein. 

The United States is essentially an 
agricultural community. The basis of 
its wealth lies not so much in the pro- 
ducts of its mines and manufactures as 
it does in those of its fields, gardens, 
orchards, and forests. ‘The territory of 
the United States, including its new pos- 
sessions, represents every variety of soil 
and every character of climate. It has 
agricultural lands in the tropics, in the 
subtropics, in the temperate zone, and in 
the sub-boreal regions of Alaska. In 
latitude its agricultural lands extend 
half way around the world. Agricult- 
ural crops are grown inthe United States 
subject to all the vicissitudes of climate, 
to excessive rainfalls, to prolonged 
drouth, to intense heat, and to alternat- 
ing frosts and sunshine. 

Within the borders of the United 
States are grown every agricultural crop 
known to the world. It produces im- 
mense quantities of the cereals; of fiber 
plants, including especially cotton and 
flax; of sugar-producing plants, includ- 
ing sugar cane, sugar beets, sorghum, 


® 


Tue Unitep States: Its Soits, ETc. 269 


From Edwin S. Holmes, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


Between the Walls of 100,000 Sacks of Wheat at Mission, Oregon 


The warehouse is 56 feet wide and 310 feet long. There are 250,000 bushels of wheat 
in the sacks 


Tue Nationa, GrEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


270 


-yuoudiyS Sunway yeoyA\ payors 


ANNUITY JO JUoUTZVdaCT *G "A ‘SOOT! “GS UIA pep WOAYT 


Due UnNiteD STATEs: 


) 


Ins SOULS, wAeS 


A Portion of the Grain Fleet in Portland Harbor, Oregon 


and maple trees; all kinds of vegetables 
and fruits; medicinal plants of every 
variety; forest products of all kinds; 
spices and condiments of every descrip- 
tion. 


MAGNITUDE OF THE CEREAL CROPS 
OF THE UNITED STATES 


As an introduction to the discussion 
of the subject embraced in this paper, a 
brief statement of the magnitude of some 
of the agricultural crops of the United 
States and the area under cultivation 
will be useful. In the year 1902 the 
following statistics show the area under 
cultivation, the yield per acre, the total 
production and the price per unit, and 
im toto the magnitude of our standard 
agricultural crops: The crop which is 
universal in the United States is maize 


or Indian corn. There is only one state 
in the Union in which a considerable 
area of Indian corn is not grown, viz., 
the State of Nevada, and it, as is well 
known, is a barren desert, except where 
irrigation can be practiced. ‘The total 
area under cultivation in the United 
States in maize in 1902 was 94,043,613 
acres. The total production was 2,523,- 
648,312 bushels. The price per bushel 
was 40.3 cents. The total value of the 
crop was $1,017,017,349. The largest 
acreage devoted to maize in any one 
state was in Illinois, viz., 9,623,680 
acres, yielding 372,436,416 bushels. 
The smallest reported area in any one 
state, with the exception of Nevada, as 
above mentioned, was 2,384 acres in 
Wyoming. 

After maize the most important cereal 


BED 


crop inthe United States is wheat. The 
area in 1902 was 28,581,426 acres in 
winter wheat, and 17,620,998 acres in 
spring wheat, a total of 46,202,424 
acres. The average yield per acre of 
winter wheat was 14.4 bushels. The 
total quantity of winter wheat produced 
was 411,788,666 bushels, and the aver- 
age price was 64.8 cents per bushel. 
The total value of the winter wheat 
was $266,727,475. The average yield of 
spring wheat per acre was 14.7 bushels. 
The total production was 258,274,342 
bushels. The average price per bushel 
was 60.2 cents. The total value of the 
spring wheat was $155,496,642. Placing 
the two sets of data together, we find 
the total yield was 670,063,008 bushels 
and the total value was $422,224,117. 

The area sown to oats in the United 
Statesin 1902 was 28,653,144 acres. The 
average yield per acre was 34.5 bushels. 
The total yield was 987,842,712 bushels. 
The average price per bushel was 30.7 
cents. ‘The total value of the crop was 
$303,584,852. 

‘The area sown to barley in the United 
States in 1902 was 4,661,063 acres. 
The total yield was 134,954,023 bushels 
and the total value was $61,898,634. 

The total area sown to rye in the 
United States in 1902 was 1,978,548 
acres. The yield was 33,630,592 bushels 
and the total value of the crop was $17,- 
080,793. 

The total area sown to buckwheat in 
the United States in 1902 was 804,889 
acres. The total production was 14,- 
529,770 bushels and the total value of 
the crop was $8,654,704. 

The above comprise the principal 
cereal crops of the United States. 
They do not include, however, consid- 
erable areas sown to millet, sorghum, 
Egyptian corn, rice, and other cereals. 
Summarizing the above principal crops, 
we find the total area under cultiva- 
tion was 176,343,681 acres; total pro- 
duction, 4,364,668,417 bushels; total 
value, $1,830,460,449. 


THe NarronaL GeocraPHic MaGaZINE 


COTTON CROP VALUED AT NEARLY 
FIVE HUNDRED MILLION DOLLARS 


The area of cotton harvested in the 
United States in 1902 was 27,114,103 
acres. In addition to this, 764,227 
acres were planted to cotton, which 
were not harvested. The total pro- 
duction of cotton lint was 5,111,870,028 
pounds. 

The price per pound for cotton at Gal- 
veston February 6, 1903, was 9 cents, 
making the total value of the crop 
$460,068, 303. 

The area devoted to hay-making 1n the 
United States in 1902 was 39,825,227 
acres and the yield 59,857,576 tons of 
2,000 pounds each. ‘The price per ton 
was $9.06. The total value of the crop 
was $542,360, 364. 

The total area planted to potatoes in 
the United States in 1902 was 2,965,587 
acres. The yield was 284,632,687 
bushels. The average price per bushel 
was 47.1 cents. The total value of the 
crop was $134,111,436. 

The total area planted to tobacco in 
the United States in 1902, excluding 
Porto Rico and the Hawaiian Islands, 
was 1,300,734 acres. The total yield 
was 821,823,963 pounds. The total 
value was $80,472,506. 

The total number of tons of sugar 
beets harvested in the United States in 
1902 was 1,777,639 tons of 2,240 pounds. 
The total number of tons of sugar pro- 
duced was 195,800 of 2,240 pounds. 
The acreage in beets is difficult to de- 
termine, but it may be assumed that 
the average crop was about eight tons 
per acre, which would make the total 
acreage 24,475 acres. ‘he average price 
of the sugar was about four cents per 
pound, making the total value of the 
crop $17,543,680. 

The total quantity of cane sugar made 
in the United States in 1902 was 767,000 
tons of 2,240 pounds each. Of this 
amount Louisiana furnished 250,000 
tons, Porto Rico 100,000 tons, the Ha- 
waiian Islands 315,000 tons, and the 


273 


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BVULISINO’T UId}SOMYINOG UL oY Suysoarwe_y 


Qo ‘ddvuy *y °S wor 


vaie9 A[UO a} SE VOI 


Tue Unitep States: Its Soits, ETc. 


Philippine Islands (exports) 102,000 
tons. 

Most of the cane sugar was raw, and 
did not bring so high a price as beet 
sugar, which was mostly refined. The 
average price of the cane sugar may be 
taken at three cents per pound. The 
total value of the crop was therefore 
$51,542,400. 

The area planted to flax for the pro- 
duction of flaxseed in 1902 in the United 
States was 3,739,700 acres. The quan- 
tity of seed produced was 29,284,880 
bushels, and the value of the crop was 
$30,814,661. In this valuation no ac- 
count is made of the value of the flax 
fibers. 

The area in hemp in the census year 
was reported as 16,042 acres, yielding 
11,750,630 pounds of fiber valued at 
$546, 338. 

The area in vegetables, excluding po- 
tatoes, in the census year was 2,814,139 
acres, producing a crop valued at $143,- 
782,534- 

The total area devoted to the produc- 
tion of peas in the census year was 
968,371 acres, yielding 9,440,269 bush- 
els valued at $7,909,074. 

The total area devoted to the culti- 
vation of peanuts was 516,658 acres, 
producing 11,964,959 bushels valued at 
$7,271,230. 

The area devoted to the cultivation 
of castor beans was 25,738 acres, pro- 
ducing 143,388 bushels valued at $134,- 
084. 

The total area planted to hops in the 
census year was 55,613 acres, producing 
49,209,704 pounds valued at $4,084,929. 

The area devoted to the cultivation 
of broom corn inthe census year was 
178,584 acres, producing 90,947,370 
pounds and valued at $3,588,414. 


THE FRUIT CROPS 


The total value of the fruit crops of 
all kinds in the United States in the 
census year was $131,423,517. Of this 
amount $83,751,840 was the value of 


s 


27 5 


the orchard fruit; $25,030,877 the value 
of the small fruits; $14,090,937 the 
value of the grapes, and $8,549,863 the 
value of the citrus and subtropical fruits. 

The number of orchard trees of the 
different kinds in the United States in 
the census year was as follows: 


EMD DIS WEEE coooebocacsue0-cc0c 201,794,764 
Peach and nectarine trees........ 99,919,428 
RearitreesSaaeeer 17,716,184 


Pitimvandyprunetreesw meee 
(Cimerday WEES 6 bcc G95 Gudccdanese 
Apricot trees 


30,780,892 
11,943,287 
5,010,139 


The total area’in fruit trees in the 
United States is 6,230,745 acres. ‘The 
total area in small fruits is 304,029 acres, 
and the total value of the small fruits 
produced $25,030,877. 

The number of olive trees in the 
United States in the census year was 
1,540,155, and the number of pounds 
produced was 5,053,637. 

The number of nut trees in the United 
States in the census year cultivated on 
farms was 1,649,072. 


THE NUMBER OF FARMS 


The total area under irrigation in the 
census year in the United States was 
7,263,273 acres, and the value of the 
irrigated crops was $84,433,438. 

The total area of the United States, 
including Alaska, Porto Rico, and the 
Hawaiian Islands, is 3,613,217 square 
miles, equivalent to 19,768,604,880 
acres. 

The number of farms in the United 
States in the census year was 5,739,657. 
The average number of acres in each 
farm was 146.6. ‘The total acreage of 
the farms in the United States was 
841,201,546. The value of the farm 
property in the United States in the 
census year was $20,514,001,838. ‘The 
value of the farming implements and ma- 
chinery was $761,261,550. ‘The value 
of the live stock on the farms was 
$3,078,050,041. 

The total value of the farms of the 
United States in the census year was 


AGT) 


Tue Nationa, GeocraeHic MaGAZINE 


A Field of Pumpkins Grown for Seed 


$16,674,690,247, of which the land, 
with improvements except buildings, 
was $13,114,492,056 and the farm 
buildings $3,560,198,191. 

Of the 5,739,657 farms in the United 
States 2,024,964 were operated by 
renters, and 3,714,693 were operated 
by their owners. 


NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM 


ANIMALS 
The number and value of farm ani- 
mals in the United States on January 1, 
1903, as estimated by the Statistician 
of the Department of Agriculture, were 
as follows 


Animals. | Number. | Valued at— 


TORE c0co0000 | 16,557,373 | $1,030,705,959 


IWOBIIES so bcccuece | 2,728,088 197,753>327 
Milch cows...... 17,105,227 516,711,914 
Other cattle... | 44,659,206 | 824,054,902 
SIT Dsc00- 0000 63,964,876 168,315,750 
Syiphisc00n saccd | 46,922.624 | 364,973,688 


‘The total number of farm animals was 
191,937,394, and the total value of the 
farm animals was $3,102,515,540. 

The total value of the agricultural 
and horticultural crops of the United 
States for 1902, as estimated by the Stat- 
istician of the Department of Agricult- 
ure, 1S $3,500,000,000, not including 
live stock, the annual value of which is 
estimated at $1,000,000,000, making the 
total value of the agricultural pro- 
ducts of the United States for 1902 
$4,500,000, 000. 

The total value of the agricultural 
exports of the United States for the year 
ending June 30, 1901, was $943,811,020, 
amounting to 64.62 per cent of the total 
exports of all kinds from this country. 
Some of the principal items included in 
the above are as follows : 


Value of cattle exported. ....... $37,566,980 
Siesheepresxxported sameness I,933,000 
GS GS nore] SxGOMIGCL oo os- 235,465 


«“ « bacon and hams exported 60,341,804 


aE ONiMEDowATES:\ laps Sells, RTC: 


Value of pork exported......... '. $13,059,551 

aateeemlardeexsportedun 1) -. 46,560,148 

““ —“* Deef products exported.. 44,225,319 
“all other meat products 

exported. : 23,369,0 3 

«< _“" dairy productsexported. 9,403,722 

De COLLOM Era wanna 313,673,443 

“«  “"“‘breadstuffs 275,594,618 
LO UACCOS unmanufact- 

ured, exported........ 27,656,475 


WILL OUR FOOD SUPPLY KEEP PACE 
WITH OUR ENORMOUSLY INCREAS- 
ING POPULATION? 


The foregoing data will show, in a 
general way, the vast agricultural re- 
sources of the United States. It is 
seen that we are not only able to feed 
our own people, but millions of people 
in other countries. 

There is one question which con- 
stantly presents itself to the mind of the 
political economist, namely, Is the rate 
of increase in population to be dimin- 
ished, or, if continued, will the food 
supply be exhausted in the near or re- 
mote future? In looking for answers 


AY J) 


to these questions, political economists 
must consult scientific agriculture. In 
the application of the principles of agri- 
culture to science is found the only safe 
response. It is certain that under the 
fostering care of this country and with 
wise and well-directed engineering, 
many millions of acres of rich land can 
be procured for agricultural purposes 
through irrigation. Science teaches us 
in many other ways the methods of 
making the farm, to a certain extent, 
independent of* the variations in rain- 
fall. The true principles of conserving 
moisture for the purpose of crop pro- 
duction, and of utilizing to the best 
advantage the excess of precipitation, 
are now well known and are daily taught 
to our people. Scientific forestry is in- 
creasing the number of trees and bring- 
ing large areas into tree culture which 
before were only featureless plains. 
What the effect of tree planting will be 
upon the climate is not known with cer- 
tainty, but the general impression is that 


A Field of Silverskin Onions on Bloomsdale Farm, Philadelphia 


Tue NarionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


DUS 


1ayU 


aWOH aly, Jo Asazrnoy 


jlodxiy 1OF pousz}eyy Sutoq apW7VO 


Bic THINGS OF THE West 


the more abundant the growth of trees, 
the more readily is moisture preserved 
for agricultural purposes while the 
intensity and extent of floods is dimin- 
ished. 

The true principles of fertilization 
are annually increasing the average 
product of the older farm lands of the 
community. The principles of cattle 
feeding are introducing important econ- 
omies into the utilization of farm prod- 
ucts. We have no reason to think 
that the average wheat crop, for in- 
stance, in the United States would not 
increase in the amount grown per acre 
An increase of a single bushel per acre 
_will give, in round numbers, an increase 
of sixty million bushels to the crop. 
The scientific farmer can readily double 
and treble his crop, and so, without 
increasing the acreage, supply double 
or treble the amount of wheat. The 
same principle is true of other crops. 
The future soil fertility will increase, 
not diminish. The average output of 
each acre will grow. While the capac- 
ity of the mouth to consume remains 
constant through all centuries, the ca- 


279 


pacity bf the hands to furnish food is— 
constantly increasing. We need not 
fear, therefore, a period of world star- 
vation due to the exhaustion of the 
food-producing capacity of the soil. 
If universal hunger does come, it will 
not be from this cause. It may be—I 
would not deny it—that the final fate 
of man on earth is starvation or freez- 
ing, but the remote future at which 
such calamities can occur makes their 
event for practical purposes infinitely 
removed. We are now feeding, within 
the boundaries of the United States, 
eighty million people. When in a hun- 
dred years from now we are feeding two 
hundred million people, the quantity of 
food per head will be no less abundant 
than at present. In those days now so 
near at hand agriculture will be more a 
science and more an art. The fields 
will all be gardens, and the forests 
sources of income without destruction. 
The life of man will be full of amenities 
which are now denied the tiller of the 
soil, and the true aristocracy of the 
earth will be composed of those in direct 
touch with earth herself. 


BIG THINGS OF THE WEST * 


By Cuartes F. Hoitper 


HETHER rightly or not, the - 


West has earned a reputation 

for big things—hig fishes, big 
fruit, big trees; and so many really big 
things come from this section of the 
country that possibly some of the in- 
habitants fall naturally into the habit 
of telling big stories and painting as 
they rise. There are, however, certain 
peculiar conditions that hold on the 
Pacific slope that justify the story-teller. 
The West has the largest trees in the 
great Sequoias which rear their lofty 
heads two or three hundred feet in air. 


It possesses the giant redwoods, which 
possibly rank next in size and useful- 
ness, great forests extending all along 
the fog-laden country of northern Cali- 
fornia. In Alaska we find the highest 
mountains in America, and the largest 
and most numerous glaciers, beginning 
with Muir and Malaspina, the latter the 
most remarkable glacier in the world. 
The stroller through the markets of San 
Francisco will find the western repre- 
sentative of the New York weak-fish—a 
huge creature ranging from eighty to 
one hundred pounds—and will be told 


* Reprinted from the Scientific American Supplement by courtesy of Munn & Co. 


280 


Courtesy of the Scientific American Supplement 


A Colossal Californian Pumpkin 


that a similar fish is caught in the Gulf 
of California weighing two hundred 
pounds. In the Italian quarter of this 
city will be seen the octopus, or devil- 
fish, hung up for sale, a terrible array 
of arms or tentacles; not the little crea- 
ture a foot or two across common in the 
East, but a veritable monster with a 
radial spread of perhaps twelve or four- 
teen feet. Along the upper coast these 
animals have been found with a radial 
spread of twenty-five feet—well named 
the spider of the sea. Along the coast 
will be seen a bass which often tips the 
scales at five hundred pounds; and at 
Monterey has been taken a mackerel 
weighing nine hundred pounds—sug- 
gestive that even fishes grow large in 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


western waters. In Alaskan 
waters is found a monster clam, 
the ‘‘ geoduck,’’ one of which 
would afford a meal for several 
persons; not so large however 
as the great tridacna and its 
species, which weighs, with 
its two valves, five hundred 
pounds, the animal alone 
weighing thirty. This shell, 
though common in California, 
is from the equatorial regions 
of the Pacific, where, buried in 
the soft rock, its viselike jaws 
partly open, it is a menace to 
the natives who wade along the 
reefs searching for shells. 

In southern California the 
vegetation is often remarkable 
for itssize. At Santa Barbara 
is a grapevine which covers 
several hundred square feet, 
the vine itself resembling a 
tree, said to be the largest 
vine in the world, though this 
is open to doubt, for some of 
the old vines of Spain are of 
enormous size. Whether it is 
due to the newness of the soil 
and the fact that it is not yet 
exhausted by successive farm- 
ing is not known, but nearly 
everything here grows very large and 
rapidly. The tree known as the Aus- 
tralian black wattle will attain a height 
of fifty or more feet in five years, palms 
the same height in less than twenty 
years, and eucalyptus one hundred feet 
in less time; so that it is a common 
saying in southern California that bar- 
ren ground can be taken and made to 
look like a place fifty years old in five 
years. The extraordinary growth of 
flowering plants and shrubs in south- 
ern California is noticed. The eastern 
heliotrope grows in the form of a vine 
reaching twenty feet upward, cover- 
ing the fronts of houses, in some way 
resisting the frost if at all protected 
by overhanging roof. In the city of 


Bic Tunes oF THE WEsT 


281 


Courtesy of the Scientific American Supplement 


A Giant Californian Potato Vine 


Pasadena many remarkable examples of 
large growth are seen, one being a po- 
tato, which was trained to grow upon a 
trellis and assumed the form of a lusty 
vine over twelve feet high, producing 
an extraordinary number of potatoes. 

Some of the photographs of fields of 


pumpkins taken in the fall in Southern 
California might well be considered 
open to suspicion, so enormous are the 
productions. One pumpkin exhibited 
by James F. Stewart & Co. in I,os 
Angeles was so huge that a calf was 
held in the interior while a photog- 


282 


rapher took its picture. Doubtless the 
California rancher who raised this giant 
would tell the Eastern farmer that it 
was ‘‘not a good year for pumpkins, 
either.’’ Another colossal pumpkin 
raised by J. J. Teague in 1901 weighed 
230 pounds, and when dug out after 
the jack o’ lantern fashion afforded a 
playhouse for the rancher’s little 
daughter, if we may judge by the pic- 
ture. In the old days California pears 
were famous all over the civilized world 
for their size, but today this reputation 
applies to all fruits. Strawberries 
grown here are sometimes so large that 
three or four would fill a plate. Sweet 
potatoes are often mammoth—four feet 
in length—while the oranges, the im- 


IPAWUIL, IDV! 


who died at St Petersburg April 

30, was born in New Orleans 
July 31, 1835. His birthplace was thus 
the same city to which Stanley nearly 
twenty years later drifted as a cabinboy, 
to be befriended and adopted by the 
merchant Stanley. Little is known of 
Du Chaillu’s ancestors, except that they 
were of one of the old French Huguenot 
families that had settled in Louisiana. 
His father, a man of considerable means, 
was engaged in the West African trade 
and owned a ‘‘ factory’’ or trading depot 
on the Gaboon coast, a few miles north 
of the Equator. Paul as a boy accom- 
panied his father to Africa and lived for 
three or four years on the coast. He 
was a bright, enterprising youngster, 
who spent most of his time talking with 
the natives, hearing their stories and 
learning their dialects and ways of 
thinking and living. He liked better 
to listen to the stories of the native 
traders than to learn the business of his 
father. It was this personal knowledge 
of the native which enabled him after- 


P= BELLONI DU CHAILLU, 


Tue Nationa, GreocRAPHic MaGaZINnE 


mense navels which sometimes hang 
upon the trees for a year, probably 
excel in size any similar fruit anywhere. 
In a Pasadena garden in the summer of 
1902 could be seen string beans with 
pods three feet in length, presenting an 
extraordinary spectacle, and as though 
the vine was hung with green snakes. 
But this extraordinary growth cannot 
be attributed to the soil of Southern 
California, as the seeds are said by Mr 
Charles Richardson to have come origi- 
nally from China, the growth not being 
abnormal, though doubtless when the 
wonderful plants are distributed over 
the state some patriotic Californian will 
claim that the bean is due to the remark- 
able soil and climate of California.” 


Cie LAIULIL 


ward to travel for thousands of miles in 
the interior without being obliged to 
killa single native. 

About 1853 his father took him back 
to the United States, but the wild tales 
the boy had heard had fascinated him 
and excited him to find out how much 
was true of what the seacoast natives 
said of the cannibals, pygmies, wildmen 
or gorillas, and other marvels of the 
Great Forest. No white man had pre- 
viously penetrated more than a few 
miles into the interior along this part 
of the coast. 

Inthe fall of 1856 he sailed from New 
York in a three-masted schooner and 
was landed at Gaboon in December. 
The following three and one-half years 
he passed exploring a section of Africa 
stretching from Gaboon 320 miles in- 
land and 250 miles north and south. 
On his return to New York in 1859 he 
wrote the story of his discoveries, which 
was published by Harper & Brothers in 
1861 under the title of ‘‘ Explorations 
and Adventures in Equatorial Africa ; 
with Accounts of the Manners and Cus- 


toms ofthe People, and of the 
Chase of the Gorilla, Croc- 
odile, Leopard, Elephant, 
Hippopotamus, and other 
Animals. By Paul B. Du 
Chaillu, with Map and Illus- 


trations. Harper & Bros., 
186r.’’ In his preface he 
states : 


“I traveled—always on 
foot, and unaccompanied by 
other white men—about 
8,o00 miles. I shot, stuffed, 
and brought home over 2,000 
birds, of which more than 60 
are new species, and I killed 
upwards of 1,000 quadru- 
peds, of which 200 were 
stuffed and brought home, 
with ‘more than 80 hitherto 
unknown toscience. I suf- 
ered fifty attacks of the 
African fever, taking, to 
cure myself, more than four- 
teen ounces of quinine. Of 
famine, long-continued ex- 
posures to the heavy tropical 
rains, and attacks of fero- 
cious ants and venomous 
flies, it is not worth while 
to speak. 

““My two most severe and 
trying tasks were the trans- 
portation of my numerous 
specimens to the seashore 
and the keeping of a daily 
journal, both of which involved more 
painful care than I like even to think 
Olen 

In the book he told of gorilla, of 
which he had brought back the first 
specimens and which he had been the 
first white man to see and hunt; of the 
fierce cannibal tribes, the Fans, who 
filed their teeth to keep them sharp; of 
the ravages of the Baskouay ants, which 
marched in dense columns miles in 
length, and who were marshalled by 
officers and generals; of hunting ele- 
phants with pitfalls; of a new variety 


Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons 


Paul Du Chaillu 
Born July 31, 1835; Died April 30, 1903 


of snake, less than four feet long and 
six and eight inches thick, which lies in 
the open places in the woods and whose 
bite is instantaneous death, and of many 
other equally wonderful sights. 

The book was greeted with shouts of 
laughter and derision from one end of 
the American continent to the other. 
Mr and Mrs and Miss Gorilla was the 
commion jest, and the name Du Chaillu 
became a byword for a fanciful story- 
teller. Du Chaillu was only 26 when 
his first book was published. He was 
unable to answer satisfactorily the storm 


284 


of questions hurled at him; consequently 
nobody believed him, except Harper and 
Brothers in the United States and the 
Royal Geographical Society in England, 
both of whom valiantly and vigorously 
defended his truthfulness. 

In 1863-65 Du Chaillu made a second 
journey of exploration to Africa, the 
narrative of which appeared in 1867 as 
‘A Journey through Ashango Land.’’ 
This time he discovered the pygmies of 
the Dark Forest, but his descriptions of 
the little people were likewise received 
with incredulity. With this journey 
his explorations in Africa ended. 

Gradually each of Du Chaillu’s dis- 
coveries was confirmed by later ex- 
plorers—by Schweinfurth, Stanley, Sir 
Harry Johnston, and others. Many 
years ago they were all verified; but 
the name Du Chaillu none the less still 
remains to most Americans that of a ro- 
mance. Inacertain sense Du Chaillu 
is himself responsible for this feeling, 
for all his descriptions are so vivid and 
are so thrillingly told that the reader 
feels he is reading a work of pure inven- 
tion, rather than a narrative of actual 
experience. 

His famous description of the first 
gorilla shot by a white man is worth 
quoting : 

““Suddenly, as we were yet creeping 
along, in a silence which made a heavy 
breath seem loud and distinct, the woods 
were at once filled with the tremendous 
barking 1oar of the gorilla. 

‘“Then the underbrush swayed rapidly 
just ahead, and presently before us stood 
an immense male gorilla. He had gone 
through the jungle on his all-fours ; but 
when he saw our party he erected him- 
self and looked us boldly in the face. 
He stood about a dozen yards from us, 
and was a sight I thirk I shall never 
forget. Nearly six feet high (he proved 
fourinches shorter), with immense body, 
huge chest, and great muscular arms, 
with fiercely-glaring, large, deep gray 
eyes, and a hellish expression of face, 


Tue NarionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


which seemed to me like some night- 
mare vision: thus stood before us this 
king of the African forest. 

‘‘ He was not afraid of us. He stood 
there, and beat his breast with his huge 
fists till it resounded like an immense 
bass-drum, which is their mode of offer- 
ing defiance; meantime giving vent to 
roar after roar. 

‘“The roar of the gorilla is the most 
singular and awful noise heard in these 
African woods. It begins with a sharp 
bark, like an angry dog; then glides 
into a deep bass roll, which literally 
and closely resembles the roll of distant 
thunder along the sky, for which I have 
sometimes been tempted to take it where 
I did not see the animal. So deep is it 
that it seems to proceed less from the 
mouth and throat than from the deep 
chest and vast paunch. 

“His eyes began to flash fiercer fire 
as we stood motionless on the defensive, 
and the crest of short hair which stands 
on his forehead began to twitch rapidly 
up and down, while his powerful fangs 
were shown as he again sent forth a 
thunderous roar. And now truly he 
reminded me of nothing but some hell- 
ish dream creature—a being of that 
hideous order, half-man, half beast— 
which we find pictured by old artists in 
some representations of the infernal re- 
gions. He advanced a few steps, then 
stopped to utter that hideous roar again; 
advanced again, and finally stopped 
when at a distance of about six yards 
from us. And here, just as he began 
another of his roars, beating his breast 
in rage, we fired and killed him.’’ 

In later years Du Chaillu traveled ex- 
tensively in Sweden, Norway, Lapland, 
Finland, and other countries. He was 
the originator of the phrases ‘‘ Land of 
the Midnight Sun’’ and ‘‘ Land of the 
Long Night.’’ In 1889 he published 
‘The Viking Age,’’ his most ambitious 
work, the result of many years of spe- 
cial research. He published his first 
book for young people in 1868, called 


Tue ReEcENT FLoops 


“Stories of the Gorilla Country.’’ This 
was followed by many other similar 
books. 

Mr Du Chaillu had many friends 
among the members of the National 
Geographic Society. His last public 
address in the United States was before 


285 


the National Geographic Society, April 
12, Igol, on the occasion of a farewell 
reception tendered him by the Society 
on the eve of his departure for Russia. 
His first lecture on his return was to 
have been before the National Geo- 
graphic Society. 


THE WEATHER BUREAU AND THE RECENT 
FLOODS 


By H. C. FRANKENFIELD, 


FORECAST OFFICIAL, WEATHER BUREAU 


and lower Missouri Rivers dur- 
ing March, April, and June of the cur- 
rent year have served to bring into 
considerable prominence a feature of 
the Weather Bureau work not at all 
familiar to the general public, with the 
exception of those who dwell within 
the districts directly affected. Refer- 
ence is had to the River and Flood 
Service which, by the uniform accuracy 
and general high character of its work 
during the recent floods, has afforded a 
striking realization of the true function 
of the Weather Bureau, namely, that of 
providing as effectively as possible by 
means of its warnings for the personal 
safety as well as the material comfort 
and welfare of the people in times of 
impending disaster by wind and water. 
Ordinarily the work of the River and 
Flood Serviceis limited to the forecasting 
day by day of the coming stagesof water 
in the navigable rivers of the country for 
the benefit of the commerce thereon, 
with an occasional local warning of an 
approaching flood due to excessive pre- 
cipitation over a more or less circum- 
scribed area. These forecasts and warn- 
ings are expected by the commercial 
and agricultural interests of the com- 


HE unprecedented floods that 
have occurred in the Mississippi 


munities affected, and are accepted by 
each individual asa portion of the legit- 
imate assets of hiscalling. The country 
at large is very slightly and indirectly 
affected by the work, and as a natural 
consequence hears but little of it. It 
is only when the rains become general 
and frequent and excessive over the 
great watersheds, and when the rapidly 
swelling tides in the rivers give notice 
of the coming ruin and disaster that the 
interest of the whole country is awak- 
ened. About two-fifths of our entire 
population dwell within the watersheds 
of the three great interior rivers, and a 
much larger proportion of its great pro- 
ducing area is comprised within their 
limits. The interests of all are centered 
in these districts, and upon their weifare 
depends that of all. It is at these times 
that the River and Flood Service of the 
Weather Bureau stands forth in its true 
light, and by the timeliness and accu- 
racy of its warnings affords ample op- 
portunity for the protection of human 
life and such property as can be saved. 

The flood of March and April, 1903, 
in the lower Mississippi River was the 
greatest in its history, the stages of 
water alone considered, although its 
actual volume was very probably less 
than in 1897, the increased heights hav- 


Tue Nationa, GroGRAPHIc MaGAZINE 


286 


Cobr ‘yore “YLy ‘uoeyy ‘aua0G poopy 


Tue Recent Frioops 


ing been due to the extension and in- 
creased dimensions of the levee system. 
The confinement of the waters within 
a narrow channel, of course, operates to 
elevate the flood plane, with the natural 
result that a given stage of water would 
be recorded with a much less volume 
than was formerly necessary to produce 
the same result. An inspection of the 
figures immediately following will con- 
firm this statement, Cairo being used 
as a reference point for the reason that 
all lower river forecasts are predicated 
upon the Cairo stages : 


; | Eeess. 
|or defi- 
1897. | 1903. | ciency. 
1903. 

| Feet.| Feet.| Feet. 
CHMD.oavossedesousboe | 516] 50.6] —1.0 
Wiemphiss sere | eee 37.1 | 40.1 | +-3.0 
New Orleans .. +0.9 


19.5 | 20.4 | 


The difference was most marked at 
Memphis, owing to the completion of 
the St Francis levee, in Arkansas, since 
1897, and had not this levee broken in 
several places the excess would have 
been still greater. 

The Ohio and lower Mississippi 
Rivers, owing to a number of heavy 
and general rains that are the invaria- 
ble accompaniments of storms of the 
Southwestern type, had been rising 
steadily during February, but not to 
such an extent as to warrant flood warn- 
ings until the last two days of the 
month, when another storm of the same 
type moved northeastward through the 
Ohio Valley. It was not necessary to 
wait longer. Another general rain was 
certain to cause overflows of the already 
bank-full rivers, and warnings of dan- 
ger were at once telegraphed from the 
river centers to all points between Pitts- 
burg and Cincinnati, the character of 
the advices varying with the locality. 
For instance, at Pittsburg, where the 
fast-flowing mountain tributaries make 


2137 


every moment valuable, warnings were 
given to take all necessary precautions 
at once, the usual time for a flood to run 
out being but 18 hours, while at Cin- 
cinnati several days were allowed. On 
the same date a general warning was 
issued from Memphis that owing to the 
recent heavy and general rains the floods 
would continue for two weeks longer, 
with stages one or two feet higher. On 
March 1 the people of the New Orleans 
district were notified to make prepara- 
tions for high waters. ‘These warnings 
were repeated from day to day, grad- 
ually becoming more specific as the 
great volumes of the tributary waters 
came into the main stream. ‘There 
were more heavy rains on the 7th and 
8th, and on March g warnings were 
issued for stages below Cairo higher 
than were ever before recorded, should 
the levees remain intact. It was also 
stated that the rise would continue for 
ten days longer at Memphis and for 
four week at New Orleans, when a crest 
stage of 21 feet was expected at the 
latter place, 1.5 feet higher than in 1897. 
At the same time a stage of 50 feet was 
forecasted for Cairo. ‘These warnings 
were repeated daily with such slight 
variations as were indicated. With the 
experiences of 1897 so fresh within the 
recollection of all, there was no occasion 
to impress upon them the necessity of 
immediate action. ‘Thousands of men 
were put to work at once strengthening 
the levees and removing portable stock 
to places of safety. Armed forces pa- 
trolled the levees to guard them against 
breaking or cutting, and every possible 
precaution that experience, foresight, 
or prudence could dictate was taken. 
The warnings of the 12th raised the 
limits still higher except at New Or- 
leans, 50.5 feet being forecasted for 
Cairo and 39 feet for Memphis, the lat- 
ter to occur in seven days. About 
March 15 there was a sudden rise at 
Memphis due to recently constructed 
levees and railroad embankments, anda 


288 


Tue Natrona, GrocRaPHic MAGAZINE 


Camps of Negro Refugees, Flood of March, 1903 


Tue Recent Froops 


forecast was therefore made for a 4o- 
foot stage within afew days. The crest 
stage of 40.1 feet was reached on the 
morning of March 20, 7.1 feet above 
the danger line and three feet above the 
high-water mark of 1897. At New Or- 
leans the rise continued for nearly three 
weeks longer, and the crest stage of 
20 4 feet was reached on April 6, 1.5 
feet above the high-water mark of 1897. 
There were occasional surgings of the 
water to 20.7 feet, and had not the 
levees broken in the St Francis system 
and later at Hymelia, La., the forecast 
of a 21-foot stage made over four weeks 
before would have been fully verified. 
As it was, the error was on the right 
side, it being an important axiom of 
river forecasting to always slightly over- 
estimate, if possible, the probable height 
of a flood crest. 

The stages forecasted and those act- 
ually reached from Cairo to New Or- 
leans were as follows. The forecast at 
Cairo was made four days in advance, 
and that at New Orleans 28 days in ad- 
vance of the crest : 


Sinner. Forecast Actual 
stage. | stage. 
Feet. | Feet 
(CENTRO 6 Hose a eo eee 50.5 to 51 50.6 
Wemphisseere sees 40 0 40.1 
IIIS. So ceuesboode 51.0 51.0 
Arkansas City....... 53.0 | 53.0 
Greenillea ener 49.0 | 49.1 
Wicksburciane ben. -| 520 51.8 
New Orleans........ 21.0 20.4 to 20.7 


On the Ouachita River, 37 and 45 
feet were forecasted and 36.2 and 44.5 
feet reached at Alexandria and Monroe, 
La., respectively. 

The floods of the last few days of 
May and the early days of June in the 
lower Missouri and the upper Missis- 
sippi were the greatest of any of which 
we have authentic record, except that 
of 1844. The stories of the ruin and 
desolation in the valley of the Kaw and 
at Kansas City are familiartoall. Dur- 


289 


ing the latter half of May persistent low 
barometric pressure over the eastern 
slope of the Rocky Mountains caused 
daily rainfalls of almost torrential char- 
acter over Kansas, the excess above the 
normal amount for the season averag- 
ing about seven inches. The same con- 
ditions prevailed to a lesser extent to 
the eastward into northwestern Mis- 
souri and Iowa, and all streams soon 
became raging torrents. At Kansas 
City the maximum stage was 35 feet, 2 
feet below the high-water mark of 1844. 
The records for points within the State 
of Kansas have not yet been verified, 
but there are sufficient data at hand to 
warrant the statement that they were 
higher than ever before recorded. 

The first warnings of this flood were 
issued at Kansas City on May 26, and 
thereafter daily until the waters sub- 
sided. It was in connection with this 
flood that there occurred the single un- 
fortunate feature of the flood work of 
the year. Owing to the want of sufh- 
cient funds for the purpose, no flood 
service has been maintained on the 
Kansas River, although the Missouri 
River is well supplied. For this reason 
it was not possible to forecast exact 
stages after May 29. On May 30 tele- 
graph and telephone service were very 
uncertain, and on the 31st Kansas City 
was completely cut off from the west. 
On June 1 came the flood crest of 35 
feet. The forecasts were from the ne- 
cessities of the case very general in 
character, and stated only that a ‘‘ seri- 
ous flood’’ was imminent, and would 
continue as long as the rains were fall- 
ing. East of Kansas City conditions 
were more favorable, and the forecasts 
were well verified, both as to time and 
stage. Warnings were first issued at 
Des Moines on the 25th of May, at 
Keokuk on the 28th, and at St Louis on 
the 30th. At this latter place warnings 
were issued on June 5 to prepare for a 
stage of 38 feet in about fourdays. On 
the fifth day that stage was exactly 


290 


reached, and the waters began to slowly 
recede. ‘This stage of 38 feet was 8 
feet above the danger line, and within 
2.6 feet of the great high-water mark 
of June 27, 1844. 

This flood, while, of course, much 
more destructive than that of 1844, did 
not by any means equal it in volume. 
In 1844 the lowlands were not occupied, 
there were no busy centers of industry 
at Armourdale, Argentine, and East St 
Louis, and consequently the damage 
done was relatively slight. The rain- 
fall in 1844, however, was decidedly 
greater than in May, 1903, and there 
were no levees along the river to hold 
the waters. Yet with all bottom lands 
overflowed, a stage of 37 feet was 
reached at Kansas City on June 20 and 
of 41.4 feet at St Louis on June 27. 
At the same time the Illinois River was 
from 10 to 15 miles wide from La Salle 
to its mouth, and from Hardin down 
united with the Mississippi to form one 
continuous river. The consequence of 
an equal amount of rain during the 
present year and equally well distributed 
cannot be estimated with any degree of 
exactness. Nevertheless it is reason- 
ably certain that several feet would 
have been added to the stage at St 
Louis, and that the entire city of East 
St Louis would have been totally sub- 


A SUGGESTED FIELD 


HE cabled reports tell of the 
continued activity of Mont 
Pelée in Martinique, of Colima 

in Mexico, and of Santa Maria in Gua- 
temala. For a period now of eighteen 
months there have been unceasing vol- 
canic disturbances in a belt extending 
east and west, from the west coast of 
Mexico to Martinique, and north and 
south, from central Mexico to Vene- 
zuela. Since January 1, 1902, this belt 
at some point or other along its length 


Tue Narionat GeocraPHic MaGaZzIne 


merged to a depth of at least 8 or 10 
feet. 

The annual rise of the Columbia River 
is always a subject of interest to the 
people of the north Pacific coast. This 
rise depends almost entirely upon the 
melting of the winter snows in the 
mountains, and there are at times wide 
divergences of opinion as to the prob- 
able extent of the rise and its effects 
upon the Willamette River at Portland, 
Oregon. In March of the present year 
the official in charge of the Weather 
Bureau office at Portland issued a bul- 
letin on the subject, in which he stated 
that from the amount of snow then in 
the mountains a stage of 24 feet, or 9 
feet above the danger line, would be 
reached at Portland about the middle of 
June. On June 13 the stage was 22.8 
feet, with the Columbia still rising 
slowly. 

Against such cataclysms as those at 
Pacolet and Heppner, flood warnings 
cannot avail. They are caused by tor- 
rential downpours upon extremely pre- 
cipitous watersheds. Millions of tons 
of water are suddenly poured into a 
deep reservoir with but a single narrow 
avenue of escape. The results are then 
apparent, but they are beyond the proy- 
ince of human wisdom either to foresee 
or prevent. 


FOR EXPLORATION 


has been constantly in a state of violent 
disturbance. The first disturbance oc- 
curred in January, 1902, when an earth- 
quake destroyed Chilpancingo in Mex- 
ico, and caused the loss of thousands of 
lives. On April 18 Quesaltenango and 
other towns in Guatemala were likewise 
ruined and fearful destruction of life 
resulted. On May 8 occurred the erup- 
tions of Mont Pelée and La Souffriére, 
numbering 35,000 victims. In Novem- 
ber the Santa Maria volcano in Guate- 


A SuGGeEsTeD FIigLp For EXPLORATION 


mala erupted, and thousands of lives 
were destroyed. Early in 1903 Colima 
in Mexico erupted, and many more lives 
were lost. Since the eruption of Mont 
Pelée, on May 8, blasts even more ter- 
rific than the first fatal one have burst 
repeatedly from its mouth.* 

We know that all these phenomena 
are related to each other ina general 
way, but what that relation is we are 
unable to explain. The Royal Society 
of England in 1902 sent two geologists 
to Martinique and St Vincent to study 
conditions there; the French Academy 
of Sciences did likewise ; the National 
Geographic Society sent two eminent 
American geologists, Prof. I. C. Russell, 
head of the department of geology, Uni- 
versity of Michigan, and Robert T. Hill, 
of the U.S. Geological Survey, and one 
foreign-born geographer, C. E. Borch- 
grevink ; Harvard University and the 
National Geographic Society jointly 
sent Dr T. A. Jaggar, of the Depart- 
ment of Geology of Harvard Univer- 
sity ; the American Museum of Natural 
History sent one geologist, Dr EK. O. 
Hovey, who is still in the field, and 
Prof. Angelo Heilprin, of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, has 
made three separate trips to the same 
region. But each of these expeditions 
has observed and studied only one point 
in the region of volcanic disturbance, 
and that point on the extreme eastern 
end of the belt. Noone has gone to 
Colima or Santa Maria, on the western 
end, the ashes from whose craters are 
different from the ashes from Mont Pelée 
and Souffriére. The conclusions of all 
these expeditions deal with one locality, 
with one point of weakness only. What 
is needed is a careful examination of all 
the principal points of disturbance on 


* Consult ‘‘Mont Pelée and the Tragedy of 
Martinique,’’ by Angelo Heilprin, pages 257- 
270. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 
1903. 


291 


the belt, Santa Maria in Guatemala, 
Colima in Mexico, etc., so that the 
phenomena at the various points on the 
belt may be carefully compared. 

The trouble with all past investiga- 
tions of volcanoes has been that the 
study has not been sufficiently complete 
and general. Krakatoa, Vesuvius, and 
Mauna Loa have each been examined 
and carefully watched by expert geolo- 
gists and special commissions, but these 
investigations have been handicapped 
by being limited to a small area of ac- 
tivity. An opportunity like the present 
for studying active volcanic conditions, 
not at one point only, but at several 
connecting points extending over a wide 
region, has never before been presented. 

A more comprehensive study of vol- 
canic action will throw light on the 
forces writhing beneath the earth’s 
crust. What is beneath the upper 
strata we do not know. By a system- 
atic study of such a region as the vol- 
canic belt of Central America great and 
invaluable information may be gained 
as to the origin and history of the earth. 

But a far greater discovery may result 
from such investigation ; it may be pos- 
sible to foretell when volcanic disturb- 
ances are to occur, and thus to prevent 
such a series of catastrophes as have 
horrified mankind during the last eigh- 
teen months. 

To carry out a careful and thorough 
study of this long volcanic belt would 
require probably less than $5,000, a 
mere trifle compared to the vast sums 
at present being expended to further 
exploration in the north and south polar 
regions. A wiser expenditure for scien- 
tific exploration could not be made, in 
view of our absolute ignorance today of 
the causes of volcanic action and the 
tremendous revelations that are possible 
from a comprehensive study of the 
extended region of present volcanic 
activity. 


INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CONGRESS 


cieties in the United States, held 
Saturday, June 20, 1903, in the Ameri- 
can Geographical Society Building, 
15 West Highty-first street, New York 
city, to arrange for the meeting of the 
Eighth International Geographic Con- 
gress, to be held in this country in 1y04, 
the organization of the Committee of 
Arrangements was perfected by the 
election of Prof. W J McGee, of the 
National Geographic Society, Wash- 
ington, D. C., chairman, and Dr J. H. 
McCormick, secretary. It was formally 
voted to hold the Congress in Wash- 
ington in September, 1904, adjourn- 
ing to St Louis, Missouri, to meet 
in connection with the International 
Congress of Arts and Science. In 
addition to the formal sessions of the 
Congress in Washington, it is planned 


T aconference of representatives 
i from the several Geographic So- 


to hold informal sessions or social meet- 
ings in other cities. After the final 
session in St Louis, a trip is planned to 
the City of Mexico, the Grand Canyon, 
Yosemite Valley, Yellowstone Park, 
and other points of interest to the mem- 
bers of the Congress. The following 
subcommittees were appointed: Pro- 
gram, MrC. C. Adams, of the American 
Geographical Society ; Exhibits, Mr 
Henry G. Bryant, of the Geographical 
Society of Philadelphia; Invitations, 
Prof. A. L. Rotch, of the Appalachian 
Mountain Club ; Transportation, Dr 
G. B. Shattuck, of the Geographic 
Society of Baltimore ; Finance, Messrs 
C. J. Bell, David T. Day, and Jno. Joy 
Edson. The appointment of other com- 
mittees was deferred till the next meet- 
ing of the Committee of Arrangements. 
A formal prospectus will be issued in a 
few days. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION IN 
EASTERN ASIA 


HINA, the land which so deeply 
interests us politically and com- 
mercially, has also its scientific interest. 
Geographically it is a region of great 
diversity of aspects—along the Hoang- 
ho and Yangtze having great flood 
plains, more extensive than those of the 
Mississippi ; along portions of its coast 
presenting bold promontories like the 
coast of the Pacific ; throughout the cen- 
tral region exhibiting mountain ranges 
which the rivers traverse in deep can- 
yons, and in its northwestern portion 
consisting of extensive plateaus and 
deserts, which extend to the heights of 
the Tibetan ranges. Geologically the 
rocks of China comprise representatives 


of every known geological period, and 
the record of the earth’s history appears 
to be as full and as interestingly ex- 
hibited in the Middle Kingdom as inthe 
United States. It is natural that geog- 
raphers and geologists should take a 
lively interest in exploration of any un- 
known country, but with reference to 
China their appetite has been whetted 
by the suggestions of explorers who 
have had opportunity to travel hastily, 
but rarely have been able to do more 
than glance at the problems which pre- 
sented themselves. 

The Carnegie Institution of Wash- 
ington, recognizing that China is a rich 
field of investigation, has made a grant 
for exploration in eastern Asia, and 
plans have been developed, based upon 
the results of extensive researches car- 


GeocraPHic Nores 


ried out by Baron von Richthofen thirty 
yearsago. ‘The plans are comprehensive 
in purpose, including the study of the 
successions of rocks—that is, stratig- 
raphy, the problems of structure in- 
volved in the mountains, and the history 
of mountain growth as expressed in the 
existing valleys and heights, and the 
paleontology of the various strata which 
may be encountered. 

The party will consist of Mr Bailey 
Willis, geologist in charge, and Mr Eliot 
Blackwelder, paleontologist. 

Mr Willis isa member of the National 
Geographic Society, and has been ac- 
credited its representative in China, with 
authority to make investigations on its 
behalf should opportunity occur. 

These gentlemen will leave this coun- 
try in July, and, proceeding by way of 
Europe, will confer with Baron Von 
Richthofen and other eminent European 
scientists. During the early part of Sep- 
tember they will travel from St Peters- 
burg to Peking by the Siberian Railway, 
and as soon as possible after their arrival 
in Peking will enter upon geological 
field work. The detail of operations 
during their sojourn in China depends 
upon conditions which can not now be 
exactly foreseen. It is expected that 
they will return to the United States in 
the summer of 1904. 


THE NORWEGIAN EXPEDITION TO 
THE MAGNETIC NORTH POLE BY 
ROALD AMUNDSEN 


HE following information regard- 

ing this interesting and impor- 

tant expedition is derived from Mr 

Amundsen’s article in the March issue 
of Terrestrial Magnetism : 

The leader, Amundsen, has taken 
part in the magnetic observations of the 
Gelgica South Polar Expedition, and so 
has already had some experience in 
magnetic work in polar regions. His 
ship, the G7oa, which has been especially 
built for Arctic exploration, is 70 feet 


AG) 


long, 20 feet broad, and has a tonnage 
of about 48. She is provided with a 
small petroleum motor, and makes 
about four knots an hour. She will 
carry 30,000 liters of petroleum stored 
in iron vessels to serve for heating, 
cooking, and to furnish the motive 
power. ‘The vessel will be provisioned 
for four or six years and carry a crew, 
with officers, of 8 men. 

Mr Amundsen’s instruments, which 
will serve for making both absolute and 
relative magnetic observations, were 
constructed and tested under the direc- 
tion of Professor Neumayer while di- 
rector of the ‘‘ Deutsche Seewarte.’’ 
His outfit also includes two sets of self- 
registering instruments. 

He proposes to start north during 
the early summer of this year, stopping 
at Godhavn, Greenland, for dogs. 

His first base station will probably be 
in the vicinity of North Somerset, in 
Leopold Harbor, from which he hopes 
to send news of his work in rg0q4 by 
means of whale hunters. There he pro- 
poses to make absolute magnetic obser- 
vations, and also operate his self-regis- 
tering instruments for a time. From 
this base station he likewise proposes to 
make sledge trips, on which magnetic 
observations will be made. In the sum- 
mer of 1905 he may locate his base sta- 
tion on King William Island, and again 
set up his self-registering instruments. 
The following summer (1906) he will 
attempt to locate his base station at 
Herschel Island, and open communica- 
tions with Fort McPherson, of the Hud- 
son Bay Company. His return trip will 
be made by way of Bering Strait, and 
he proposes to stop at Sitka and make 
his final observations there at the U.S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey magnetic 
observatory for the determination of in- 
strumental constants. 

Mr Amundsen thus contemplates 
making a complete and systematic mag- 
netic survey of the region about the 


294 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MaGaZINE 


] THE TETRAHEDRAL KITE 


HE accompanying illus- 
tration shows one of 

Dr Alexander Graham Bell’s 
tetrahedral kites in the air. 
It was received after the June 
number of the Nationa 
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 
went to press. The kite is 
the sixty-four-celled tetrahe- 
dral kite shown as D in figure 
16, page 227 of the June 
number. The illustration 
shows the kite flying at the 
proper angle. The photo- 
graph was taken at Colonial 
Beach, Virginia, May 26, 
1903, by Mr A. W. McCurdy. 


PORTO RICO AND THE 
UNITED STATES 


ORTO RICO is now fur- 
nishing a market of a 
million dollars a month to 
the producers and merchants 
of the United States, and sup- 
plying nearly a million dol- 


Copyright, 1903. by A. W. McCurdy 
Tetrahedral Kite in the Air 


magnetic pole, from which not only an 
accurate location of the magnetic pole 
may result, but other most important 
results will follow. The determination of 
thenorth magnetic pole by CaptainJames 
Clark Ross, in June, 1831, rested on a 
single determination. Owing to local 
disturbances, which may be expected in 
that region, there is no telling how close 
his determination was to the actual mag- 
netic pole. His position was on Boothia 
Felix, in north latitude 70° 05’ 17” and 
west longitude 96° 45’ 48”. 

It is generally believed that the mag- 
netic pole is subject to a fluctuation in 
its position, and it is hoped that Amund- 
sen’s work will throw some light upon 
the rate and direction of motion. 


lars’ worth each month of 
tropical products required by 
the United States. 

These figures of commerce 
between Porto Ricoand the United States 
are in marked contrast with those of 
earlier years. In the fiscal year 1808, 
whichimmediately preceded the transfer 
of Porto Rico to the United States, the 
exports from the United States to that 
island were $1,505,946. In the next 
year they were $2,685,848; in Ig00, 
$4,640,449; in 1901, $6,965,408; in 
1902, $10,882,653, and in the year 1903 
will be about $12,000,000. Thus the 
total shipments from the United States to 
Porto Rico for 1903 will be eight times 
as great as those of 1898, and six times 
as great as those of 1897. On the other 
hand, shipments from Porto Rico to the 
United States have grown from $2,414, 
356, in 1898, to $8,378,766, in 1902, and 


GerocrRAPHIC Nores 


probably nearly or quite $12,000,000 in 
1903, or about five times as much in 
1903 as in 1898. 

The United States is sending to the 
island cotton fabrics, iron and steel 
wares, and great quantities of rice, pro- 
visions, and breadstuffs; Porto Rico 
ships in return sugar, tobacco, coffee, 
and fruits. 

The increased value during the last 
five years of Porto Rico from a commer- 
cial point of view is admirably shown 
by a statement recently issued by the 
Bureau of the Department of Commerce 
and Labor. 


SUMMER SCHOOL OF GEOLOGY AND 
GEOGRAPHY AT CORNELL 
UNIVERSIT Y 


HE summer school which is to be 
conducted by Cornell University 
July 6 to August 15, 1903, for students 
of geology and geography offers an at- 
tractive and exceedingly varied series of 
courses. The location of the school is 
itself a lesson in all that is beautiful and 
instructive. The campus of Cornell 
University is situated on a hillside, over- 
looking a large lake in one direction, and 
broad, beautifully sloping valleys in the 
other, and bounded by narrow gorges 
with many falls, cascades, and rapids. 
The campus is the center of a great va- 
riety of beautiful, interesting, and in- 
structive geographicfeatures. The ex- 
cursions of most of the field courses are 
for the study of these features By 
these excursions the student is taught 
method and fact upon a broad range 
of geologic and physiographic phe- 
nomena. 

The university library is fully sup- 
plied with books and magazines on geo- 
logic and geographic subjects, and these 
are accessible to the students in the 
school. ‘The laboratories are equipped 
with many models, maps, photographs, 
and specimens illustrating phases of ge- 
ology, physiography, and geography. 
There is, furthermore, a collection of 


295 


fully 5,000 lantern slides for use in the 
lecture courses. 

The lecture courses have been planned 
with great care and men selected to give 
them who are recognized authorities in 
the subjects which they are to teach. 
The courses and lecturers are as follows: 

Physical Geography of the Lands; 
Prof. R. S. Tarr (Professor of Dynamic 
Geology and Physical Geography, Cor- 
nell University). 

Laboratory Course in Physical Geog- 
raphy; Assistant Principal Carney (As- 
sistant Principal, Ithaca High School) 
and Mr Mills (Assistant in Physical 
Geography, Cornell University). 

Field Course in Physical Geography; 
Professor Tarr, Mr Whitbeck, and Mr 
Mills. 

Dynamical Geology; Prof. A. P. 
Brigham (Professor of Geology and 
Natural History, Colgate University, 
Hamilton, N. Y.). 

Laboratory Course in Geology; Mr 
Matson (Assistant in Geology, Cornell 
University). 

Field Course in Geology; Professor 
Brigham, Assistant Principal Carney, 
Mr Matson, and Mr Mills. 

Geography of the United States; Pro- 
fessor Brigham. 

Geography of Europe; Professor Tarr. 

Home Geography; Prof. C. A. Mc- 
Murry (Director of Practice Depart- 
ment, Northern Illinois Normal School, 
DeKalb, I1l.). 

Type Studies in Geography for Gram- 
mar Grades; Professor McMurry. 

Commercial Geography; Principal 
Emerson (Principal Cobbet School, 
Lynn, Mass. ). 

Laboratory and Field Work in Com- 
mercial Geography; Principal Emerson. 

Class-room Problems in Geography; 
MrR. H. Whitbeck (Supervisor in New 
Jersey State Normal School, Trenton, 
INS Jado 

Physical Geography for Grades; Mr 
Whitbeck. 

Round-table Conference, for consid- 


296 


eration of topics of geographic interest; 
all the teachers and such students as 
desire to attend. 

Advanced Field and Laboratory 
Course in Dynamic Geology and Phys- 
ical Geography ; Professors Tarr and 
Brigham, with assistants. 

The regular summer session also in- 
cludes courses in Education, History, 
Economics, Botany, Zoology, and other 
subjects which have a bearing on geo- 
graphic work. 

The Summer School has also planned 
a series of entertaining and instructive 
excursions in the vicinity of Ithaca; 
among them excursions to Lake Onta- 
rio, to Niagara Falls, Wilkes Barre and 
Hazleton, and Watkins Glen. 


THE SWEDISH SOUTH POLAR 
EXPEDITION 


ON. AUGUSTUS E. INGRAM, 
Deputy Consul General of the 
United States at Paris, under date of 
May 29, sends to the National GrEOo- 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE the following note 
of an expedition to be sent out by 
France in July to rescue the Swedish 
South Polar Expedition : 

When Dr Otto Nordenskjold set out 
from Sweden, over a year ago, witha 
party of thirty-six persons on an expe- 
dition for the South Pole, his last words 
were: ‘‘If you are without news of me 
by April 30, 1903, come to my rescue, 
for we shall all be in great danger.”’ 

That time has come, and no news has 
been received of Dr Nordenskjold. In 
Sweden a telief expedition is being or- 
ganized, but it cannot start until the 
end of August. Since this may be too 
late, and as it is thought that Dr Nor- 
denskjold’s expedition is now in the 
vicinity of Cape Seymour, which is 
French soil, the national pride of France 
has been stirred to be the first to rescue 
these brave but unfortunate men. 

A vessel has already been constructed 
in France on the lines of the immortal 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


Fram and has been named Le Francais. 
Dr Jean Charcot,* well known in French 
scientific circles, is to command the ex- 
pedition, and he will be accompanied by 
other scientists and experienced naval 
officials. The sum of 150,000 francs 
is, however, necessary to complete the 
equipment, and a leading Parisian jour- 
nal, Le Matin, has opened its columns 
for a subscription list. All classes of 
people are responding liberally, and it 
is probable that the French Govern- 
ment, in addition to aid extended by its 
naval and scientific officials, will also 
make a contribution of money. 

The expedition is expected to leave 
Havre on the 15th of July, and will 
without loss of time attempt the work 
of rescue. When this has been accom- 
plished, Ze Fvangais will, like the 
fram, proceed south until it is inclosed 
in the moving field of ice. At the op- 
portune time a dash across the ice for 
the South Pole will be made. 

This expedition is of especial interest, 
as it is now nearly three-quarters of a 
century since France sent an expedition 
to the South Pole, at which time Dumont 
d’ Urville made considerable discoveries. 


Since the expected visit to Lisbon of 
His Majesty Don Alfonso XIII, King 
of Spain, will not take place next month, 
the exposition of Portuguese cartog- 
raphy, organized by the Geographical 
Society of Lisbon, under the high pro- 
tection of His Majesty King Don 
Carlos I, which was to coincide with 
that visit, has been postponed until next 
autumn. 


German South Polar Expedition.—The 
Gauss, the steamer of the German South 
Polar Expedition, has been reported off 
the east coast of South Africa. Few 
details of the work of the party have as 


*Dr Charcot had originally intended (as 
stated in this Magazine on page 217, May, 
1903) to use his vessel for Arctic rather than 
South Polar exploration. 


GerocraPHic Nores 


yet been received, but it would appear 
that, owing to the ice, they failed to 
get farther south than 66° 2’, and that 
the expedition was thus practically a 
failure. No expense had been spared 
to make the expedition a success. (It 
cost $400,000.) The plans had been 
formed after years of deliberation with 
the most competent men in Europe. 
The leader, Captain Drygalski, had 
proven his ability by previous work in 
Greenland. Bad luck alone can ex- 
plain the failure of the expedition and 
the bitter disappointment of the Ger- 
man nation. 


Mr W. J. Peters, the representative of 
the National Geographic Society on the 
Ziegler North Polar Expedition, was 
presented on his departure with the 
Society's flag. The flag of the National 
Geographic Society is of three colors— 
blue, brown, and green—representing 
respectively the air, the land, and the 
water. 


The Swedish Government has made a 
grant of $20,000 to Dr Sven Hedin to 
enable him to publish the results of his 
recent explorations in Central Asia. 
The work will consist of a series of vol- 
umes to be completed within three years. 
There will be an English edition. 


Prof. William H. Brewer, of Yale Uni- 
versity, has resigned the presidency of 
the Arctic Club. He has been presi- 
dent of the Arctic Club since it was 
founded, eight years ago, and to his 
leadership is due much of the success 
of the organization. 


Mr Robert T. Hill, of the U. S. Geologi- 
cal Survey, who visited Martinique as 
one of the representatives of the Na- 
tional Geographic Society, and whose 
preliminary reports upon the St Pierre 
disaster have been published in the 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, 
the Century, and Collier's Weekly, is 
engaged upon a careful study of the 


a9) 7) 


scientific aspects of the eruptions, which 
will be presented in the NATIONAL 
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE during 1903. 
He is also completing a monograph on 
the Windward islands for Prof. Alexan- 
der Agassiz, to be published by the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology of 
Harvard University. This work will 
be the result of several years of careful 
study of the islands and will thoroughly 
discuss the details of their geological 
structure and their bearing upon the 
alleged Windward bridge and the myths 
of Atlantis. Mr Hill is also engaged 
on a comprehensive geographical work 
upon the Republic of Mexico. From 
this country, where he has been gather- 
ing notes for the past fifteen years, he 
has just returned, after a most interest- 
ing mule-back trip across the southern 
end of the Sierra Madre between Mexico 
City and Acapulco. 


Francis H. Herrick is the author of a 
recent report issued by the U. S. Fish 
Commission entitled ‘‘The Reproduc- 
tive Period in the Lobster.’’ Dr Herrick 
concludes from his experiments that the 
spawning periods of the female are two 
years apart. 


The Royal Geographical Society is 
planning to send south the coming fall 
an auxiliary vessel to bring back the 
British South Polar Expedition. Ac- 
cording to report, the Discovery has 
been frozen in, and is separated from 
open water by six miles of ice, which 
is too great a distance to open with a 
channel. 


The British members of the Alaskan 
Boundary Commission are Lord Alver- 
stone, Chief Justice of England; Sir 
Louis Jette, Lieutenant Governor of 
Quebec, and Justice Armour, of the 
Supreme Court of Canada. 


An attempt to ascend Mount McKinley 
is being made this summer by Dr Fred- 
erick A. Cook and Mr Robert Dunn. 


GEOGRAPHIC 


A Teacher’s Manual of Geography. 
By Charles McMurry, Ph. D.; pp. 
108. New York: The Macmillan Co. 
1902. $0.40 
This book is designed to accompany 

Tarr and McMurry’s admirable series of 

geographies. To the teacher of geog- 

raphy this little volume will be of much 
practical and suggestive assistance. 


The Alaska Frontier. By Thomas Wil- 
ling Balch. With28maps. Pp. 198, 
7x 11inches. Philadelphia: Allen, 
Lane & Scott. 1903. $2.00. 


Mr Balch presents in this volume the 
results of studies he has been making 
for several years on the subject of the 
Alaska Canadian boundary. He has 
not only consulted the maps of the State 
Department, but also made a special in- 
vestigation in the archives at St Peters- 
burg, Berlin, Paris, London, Edinburgh, 
and other cities. His researches have 
enabled him to publish a notable work, 
containing new facts of considerable im- 
portance. 

The basis of Mr Balch’s argument is 
a series of 28 maps, the earliest being 
Vancouver’s chart of 1799. These maps 
are copies of maps published by the 
Russian, English, and Canadian govern- 
ments. ‘They all show the boundary ex- 
actly as claimed by the United States and 
agreed to by Great Britain and Canada 
alike for three-fourths of a century. 

One of the most notable of these is 
British Admiralty Chart No. 787, which 
was first issued in 1877. Eighteen re- 
vised editions of this chart have since 
been issued, the latest being in r1gor, 
three years after the Canadian claim 
was put forward; but each edition 
shows the boundary exactly as given in 
the United States maps. 

Mr. Balch is always careful to give 
references to authorities referred to, a 
fact that is specially desirable in works 


LITERATURE 


of this nature. The volume is dedi- 
cated ‘‘to the memory of William H. 
Seward and Charles Sumner, to whom 
the United States owes Alaska.’ 


Unknown Mexico, By Carl Lumholtz, 
M. A. Two volumes, 8vo, pp. 
i-XXXVi, I-530, i-xvi, 1-496, with 15 
colored plates, two large maps, and 
many other illustrations. New York: 
Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1902. 


As indicated by a full sub-title, this 
is a record of five years’ exploration 
among the tribes of the western Sierra 
Madre; in the Tierra Caliente of Tepic 
and Jalisco, and among the Tarascos 
of Michoacan. It supplements a num- 
ber of more technical publications, in- 
cluding Dr Lumholtz’s splendid memoir 
“Symbolism of the Huichol Indians,’’ 
issued by the American Museum of 
Natural History in t900. The expedi- 
tions were conducted and the results 
prepared for publication under the au- 
spices of various institutions and indi- 
viduals, among whom the author espe- 
cially credits the American Geographical 
Society, the American Museum of Nat- 
ural History, Mr and Mrs Morris K. 
Jesup, Mr Andrew Carnegie, and Mrs 
Elizabeth Hobson. Starting with a 
large train in southern Arizona, Dr 
Lumholtz entered Sonora, and then 
crossed the Sierra Madre into Chihua- 
hua; gradually the party was divided 
and disbanded as he worked southward 
along the eastern slopes of the Sierra 
until he was practically alone in the 
Tarahumare, Tubari, and Tepehuane 
countries, and quite without Caucasian 
companions inthe Huichol, Cora, Tipe- 
cano, and ‘Tarasco districts. Travel- 
ing usually by easy stages and mak- 
ing long stays in many of the native 
settlements, he enjoyed excellent oppor- 
tunities for study of the habits and 
custems of surviving tribes, as well as 


GEOGRAPHIC 


for archeologic research. Considerable 
collections were made of both prehistoric 
and modern material; most of these 
were sent to the American Museum of 
Natural History. In the northern sierra 
numerous habitations, both ancient and 
modern, were found in natural or 
slightly. worked niches in the stupendous 
cliffs and barrancas; these are described 
as cave-dwellings, an unfortunate desig- 
nation (since it tends to perpetuate the 
groundless notion that primordial human 
homes were in caves) growing out of the 
fact that our ordinary speech does not 
distinguish subterranean caverns from 
the open clefts or niches sometimes 
called rock-houses—a term too awkward 
for common use. In the Tarasco coun- 
try imposing yacatas, or structures of 
stone or earth sometimes containing or- 
nate sculptures or fictile ware, were dis- 
covered and some of them were ex- 
plored, these ruins forming a connecting 
link between the simpler antiquities of 
southwestern United States and the elab- 
orate monuments of southern Mexico, 
Yucatan, and Peru. Still more produc- 
tive were the researches in the interme- 
diate region, since here certain of the 
tribesmen were found to retain in excep- 
tional degree their aboriginal arts and 
industries, their native speech, their 
primitive faiths, and many of the social 
regulations of their ancestors; and Dr 
Lumholtz succeeded in gaining the con- 
fidence of the Tarahumare, Tepehuan, 
and Huichol tribesmen so completely as 
to permit him to record their primitive 
characteristics with unexampled full- 
ness. ‘The ceremonial use of tobacco; 
the symbolism of the primitive music 
and dance and.of the attendant costumes; 
the esoteric purpose of feasting; the 
devotional use of intoxicants; primitive 
marital regulations and mortuary ob- 
servances; the emblematic decoration of 
fabrics and wares—these are but exam- 
ples of the subjects apparently kept in 
the mind of the author throughout, and 
certainly elucidated with remarkable 


. 


LITERATURE 


AQ’ 


clearness in his chapters. And, so far 
as practicable, the points are illustrated 
and the observations established by pho- 
tographs made on the ground or by ob- 
jects collected and preserved in a great 
museum. Ina word, the two volumes 
form a storehouse of facts invaluable to 
the working anthropologist. Through- 
out the record breathes a sympathy with 
primitive men and a depth of apprecia- 
tion of their sentiments and ideas seldom 
seen in scientific treatises, so that it pre- 
sents one of the clearest pictures of prim- 
itive life thus far drawn. ‘The work is 
abundantly illustrated, largely by photo- 
mechanical reproductions, partly by 
engravings and lithographs bearing 
inherent evidence of fidelity; and the 
beauty of the book-making is no less 
striking than the excellence of the con- 
tents. 
W J M. 


By Ralph S. 
With 
Pp. 


Complete Geography. 
Tarr and Frank M. McMurry. 
many maps and illustrations. 
X1+478+X, 6%x8¥% inches. New 
York. ‘The Macmillan Co. 1902. 


The plan of this text book is excellent 
and has been admirably carried out. 
Only three chapters precede the inten- 
sive treatment of the United States. 
The first is a physiographic history of 
the continent, showing how its principal 
mountain ranges and valleys came into 
existence; how its coal beds were 
formed ; what were the effects of the 
great ice age ; and what have been the 
more recent changes in the coast line, 
with their results. The second chapter 
describes the plants, animals and peoples 
of North America, and the third ex- 
plains latitude and longitude. ‘Then 
follow seven chapters on the United 
States, each dealing with one group of 
states. The rest of North America is 
then described. By this arrangement 
the more difficult subjects of General 
Geography, seasons, winds and rain, 
ocean movements and distribution of 


300 


temperature, forming Part II of the 
volume, are deferred until the pupil is 
better prepared to understand them. 
Part III deals with South America, 
Part IV with Europe, and Part V with 
Asia, Africa, Australia, and Island 
Groups. ‘The maps and illustrations, 
of which there are 500, are well chosen 
and are very clearly and beautifully 
reproduced. 


Through the Heart of Patagonia. By 
H. Hesketh Prichard, F. R. G.S., 
F. Z. S., ete. Large 8vo, pp. i-xvi, 
1-346, with 4o plates and 3 maps. 
New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1902. 
In 1897 Dr F. P. Moreno stumbled on 

a piece of skin containing bony tuber- 

cles, which had been found with human 

remains ina Patagonian cave; the char- 
acter of the integument and the associa- 
tions suggested that it was from a My- 
lodon (or Giant Ground Sloth) of Ter- 
tiary facies perhaps still surviving, and 

Dr F. Ameghino used it as the type of 

a new genus and species, MVeomylodon 

fistai. A portion of the skin was taken 

by Dr Otto Nordenskjold; another piece 
passed into the hands of Prof. E. Ray 

Lancaster, Director of the British Mu- 

seum of Natural History, and Dr A. 

Smith Woodward, who made a critical 

study, asdid also Dr S. Roth, who identi- 

fied it with a Pampean genus related to 

Mylodon and renamed it Gryfotherium 

fistai. The find, in associations indi- 

cating that the animal was stabled in 
the cave and fed by early man, together 
with attendant rumors that it had been 
seen alive, naturally attracted much at- 
tention. Among those interested was 

Mr C. Arthur Pearson, of London, who 

financed an expedition in charge of Mr 

Prichard to search for further traces of 

the animal. This expedition failed of 

its primary purpose, since neither re- 
mains nor living specimens of Grypothe- 
rium were found ; yet it was successful 
in practically demonstrating that the 


Tue NatrionaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


creature no longer lives in its former 
range, and also in extending explora- 
tion of the southern Andean region. 
Among the results of permanent value 
may be noted surveys about the eastern 
portion of Lake Buenos Aires; explora- 
tions and surveys about Lake Argen- 
tino, including the discovery of Lake 
Pearson ; the finding of a new puma. 
(felis concolor pearson); various notes. 
on the habitat and habits of Patagonian 
animals; a study of ‘‘ The first attitude: 
of wild animals toward man;’’ and use- 
ful ethnologic observations, chiefly on 
the Tehuelche tribe. The sumptuous. 
report details these results, and also: 
forms an interesting record of travel 
and adventure, satisfactorily illustrated 
by reproductions of the author’s photo- 
graphs, as well as by more fanciful 
sketches in color and tint; while a full 
Appendix contains reprints of the prin— 
cipal papers on Grypotherium, together 
with a note by the author on the native 
legends, a description of the new puma 
by Oldfield Thomas, and a list of plants,,. 
with their localities. A suggestive 
chapter on the future of Patagonia. 
touches on the resources of this portion 
of the great country, Argentina, some- 
times of late fitly styled the United 
States of South America. The book is. 
handsome, despite the somewhat infe- 
rior typography and labowred orthogra- 
phy of the English press. 
W J M. 


Three Notable Works on Alaska, the 
results of extended explorations in the 
territory in 1901, have been published 
by the Survey: ‘‘ Preliminary Report 
on the Ketchikan Mining District,’’ by 
Alfred H. Brooks, Ketchikan; ‘‘ Recon- 
naissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotze- 
bue Sound,”’ by way of Dall, Kanuti, 
Allen, and Kowak rivers, by Walter C. 
Mendenhall; ‘‘Reconnaissance of North- 
western Portion of Seward Peninsula,’” 
by Arthur J. Collier. 


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In the Great North Woods—Poem . Eben E. Rexford 
Beautiful Porto Rico—Illus. . Hezekiah Butterworth 
In Rip Van Winkle’s Land—Poem . Minna Irving 
Nature’s Chronometer—Illus. . . H. M. Albaugh 
Van Arsdale, The Platitudinarian—Ill. Charles B. Loomis 
The Three Oregons—Illus. = Alfred Holman 
Ancient Prophecies Fulfilled—Illus. George H. Daniels 
The Stories the Totems Tell—Illus. Luther L. Holden 
A Little Country Cousin—Illus. . . Kathleen L. Greig 
The Mazamas—Illus. . . . Will G. Steel 
When Mother Goes Aw: ay—Poem - Joe Cone 
A Little Bit of Holland—Illus. . . Charles B. Wells 
The Romance of Reality—Illus. .°. Jane W. Guthrie 
Samoa and Tutuila—I!Ius. . . . . Michael White 
Under Mexican Skies—Illus. . . . Marin B. Fenwick 
Niagara in Winter—Illus. . . . . Orrin E. Dunlap 
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“NATIONAD 
GEOGRAPHIC 


AUGUST, 1903 
CONTENTS 
THE UNITED STATES: HER INDUSTRIES. BY O. P. AUSTIN, 
CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS. ILLUSTRATED , 
ww 
‘THE INTRODUCTION OF THE MANGO. ILLUSTRATED 
ww 


BO RAINFALL AND THE LEVEL OF LAKE ERIE. BY E, L. 
TE EE CSET TS ee Og 


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« “HART ‘MERRIAM 
Chief of the Biological Survey, 
oe _ Department of Aprivulitre 


BLIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE 


- Author of Jana, the Garden 
; i eae! ” et tc. 


| MARCUS BAKER i 
| Carnegie fence 
WILLIS L. MOORE ~ 


Chief of the: Weather Bureau, Ui; 
Teach oe Agriculture 


Wor. XIV, No, 8 


WASHINGTON 


AUGUST, 1903 


THE UNITED STATES: HER INDUSTRIES* 


By O. P. Austin, 


CHIEF OF BUREAU OF STATISTICS, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR 


HE progress of the United States 

i in its material industries has 

been the surprise of the whole 
world, the pride of her affectionate citi- 
zens. From a handful of five million 
people at the beginning of the last cen- 
tury she has grown to eighty millions, 
and from the smallest of beginnings she 
has reached the head of the list in agri- 
culture, in mining, in manufacturing, 
in currency, and in wealth. 

‘The purpose of this series of lectures 
is to present to you a picture of the 
growth of our common country, a pict- 
ure of acentury of unparalleled develop- 
ment—a development before which the 
world stands in amazement. No such 
record is known to history; no such de- 
velopment has occurred within so short 
a period; no such height has been at- 
tained in invention, in science, and in 
their application to the affairs of daily 
life, the life of the masses. While all 
nations have shared, in a greater or less 
degree, in the progress and prosperity 


of the century, the United States has 
enjoyed an especially large share of 
both, and made a record of which her 
citizens may well be preud. 

To the first lecture of this series was 
assigned the story of the great natural 
resources and advantages of the coun- 
try, and to the second the history of the 
development of our great agricultural 
resources. Both of these have been 
presented. } 

To me has been assigned the subject 
of the industrial wealth of the nation, 
the development of the conditions which 
have made this the greatest manufact- 
uring as well as the greatest producing 
nation. 

And no subject could be more wel- 
come, more inspiring to the student of 
the development of our country and its 
material resources. To trace the growth 
of our manufacturing interests from a 
total of 200 million dollars in 1810 to 
13,000 millions in 1900, and the advance 
of the United States from the bottom of 


*An address before the National Geographic Society, February 25, 1903. 


+ ‘‘The United States—Lands and Waters,’’ 
““The United States—The Soil and Its Products,’’ Na‘rronal, GEO- 


MAGAZINE, May, 1903; 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE, July, 1903. 


Cyrus C. Adams, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 


302 


the list of great manufacturing nations 
to the very head of that list, is a task 
which fully compensates the student, 
in a renewed admiration for the history 
of our people and a renewed faith in 
their future. 

The first attempt at a census of manu- 
factures in the United States was in 
1810, when the total value was found 
to be, in round terms, $200,000,000. 
The census figures of manufactures in 
1820 and 1830 were incomplete, but 
those of 1840 were about a half billion 
dollars ; those of 1850, about one bil- 
lion ; 1860, nearly two billions; 1870, 
over four billions ; 1880, about 5% bil- 
lions; 1890, more than g billions, and 
1900, 13 billions. The actual increase 
from decade to decade, still speaking in 
round terms, was: from 1850 to 1860, 
nearly one billion dollars; 1860 to 1870, 
over two billions ; 1870 to 1880, one bil- 
lion; 1880 to 1890, four billions, and 
1890 to 1900, 3% billions. In round 
terms, it may be said that the growth 
in the first half of the century was one 
billion, and in the second half 12 bil- 
lions of dollars. 

The slow growth in the first half of 
the century is due in part to the fact 
that a large share of the manufacturing 
was still performed in the household. 
While the factory system of manufact- 
ure began to take the place of that of 
the household in England in the closing 
years of the 18th century, especially as 
related to textiles, it did not obtain a 
foothold in the United States until dur- 
ing the period of the embargo and the 
War of 1812, and it was not until about 
1840 that it became general ; and as late 
as the middle of the century a consid- 
erable share of the manufacturing was 
still carried on in the family or in the 
small shop by the aid of the family and 
apprentices, as distinguished from the 
factory with paid employés and the 
application of power. Hence it is not 
surprising that the census of 1850 
showed manufactures amounting to but 


THe Nationa, GeocraepHic MAGAZINE 


one billion dollars’ value, while the 
chief cause for astonishment is the won- 
derful growth which has occurred since 
that time—a growth from one billion 
dollarsin 1850 to 13 billions in rgoo. 

I shall therefore confine my analysis 
of the growth of manufactures and its 
causes chiefly to the last half of the 
century, and in this I rely largely upon 
some charts and diagrams, by the use 
of which the eye may aid the mind in 
readily comparing the relative figures 
which mark the stages of growth. 
Necessarily the figures of manufactures 
as a whole can only be stated at decen- 
nial periods, for it is only by the na- 
tional census that this great task of 
measuring the operations of the national 
workshop is undertaken, and I am proud 
to say that the United States takes this 
measurement much more effectively and 
more in detail than any other nation of 
the world. 

Before beginning this analysis, I will 
say in general terms that the census 
figures show that the number of manu- 
facturing establishments has grown 
from 123,025 in 1850 to 512,339, or four 
times as many in 1900; the sums paid 
insalaries and wages, from $236,755,464 
to $2,732,821,528, or 12 times as much 
as in 1850, and the value of the manu- 
factures from $1,019,106,616 to $13,- 
039,279,566, or 13 times as much as in 
1850. 

It is proper to add that the figures of 
the total value of manufactures are 
merely an aggregation of the values re- 
ported by all manufacturers, and as the 
products reported by one manufacturer 
often become the materials for use by 
others, the figures of the grand total are " 
to that extent duplications. For ex- 
ample, the leather reported as a manu- 
facture by the tanner becomes the ma- 
terial used by the manufacturer of boots 
and shoes, and is asecond time reported 
by him in stating the value of the manu- 
factures turned out. The yarn pro- 
duced by one manufacturer becomes 


Tue UNITED STATEs: 


the manufacturing material for the 
maker of cloth, and the cloth becomes 
the material used by the manufacturer 
of clothing, the value of the yarn be- 
ing thus reported three times, and that 
of the cloth twice, in the final statement 
of the grand total of manufactures pro- 
duced. But as this custom has been 
followed in each census it does not ma- 
terially affect the value of the figures 
for comparative purposes in showing 
the growth of the manufacturing indus- 
try. On the other hand, the 
fact that valuesof manufactures VALUE 
have greatly fallen since the 
earlier dates considered indi- 
cates that the actual increase 
in quantity produced is even 
greater than that indicated by 
the figures, which necessarily 
deal with values only. : 

With this basis of necessary 
statistical data I shall try to 
present the remaining facts and 
analyses in a manner in which 
the growth may be measured 
with the eye as well as the 
ear, and conclusions thus more 
readily reached as to the growth 
and cause of this growth, in 
which we all feel such a just 
pride. 


No. 1.—VALUE OF MANUFAC- 
TURES OF THE UNITED 
STATES, 1810 TO tg00 

198 

The length of the lines here ® 

presented indicates the relative iD 

value of the manufactures of the 

United States in 1810 and in 

each census year, beginning with 

1840. It will be observed that 

the first great increase was in the decade 

1860-1870; the second, from 1880 to 

1890. It is well known that the civil 

war conditions, the exceptional home de- 

mand, and the difficulties of importation 
greatly stimulated manufacturing dur- 
ing the period 1860-1870, and the fact 
that the production of 1870 was stated 


Her INnpDustTRIES 


HO9 


in an inflated currency also probably ac- 
counts in some degree for the high figure 
of that year, and also for the fact that 
the apparent increase in the next decade 
was small. ‘The second great increase, 
from 1880 to 1890, was due to the open- 
ing of the interior by railways, by 
which the natural products were easily 
assembled for manufacture, the great 
reduction in cost of transportation, the 
enormous investments of capital in man- 
ufacturing, and the application of labor- 


OF MANUFACTURES IN U.S. 1810%1900 


IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 


13014 
9372 
5369 
4232 
: 1885 
1019 | 
483 
| 
140 ‘50 ‘60 ‘70 ‘80 ‘90 1900 
INCREASE 1850-1900 II76 / 
INCREASE IN POPULATION 2307, 


DIAGRAM NO. I 

saving machinery to much which was 
formerly performed by hand. In the 
decade from 1890 to 1900 came the enor- 
mous expansion in our exports of man- 
ufactures, from 151 millions in 1890 to 
433 millions in 1900, and the organiza- 
tion of great industrial combinations 
by which cost of manufacturing and 


304 
INCREASE IN VALUE OF MANUFACTURES 1810 te 
B40 %4 IN EACH DECADE FROM I8'+0=°1300 

IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 
3641 
24-37 
104-7 
866 

254 
ae | 1850 1860 1670 1860 1890 
1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1500 


DIAGRAM NO. 2 


VALUE OF MANUFACTURES PER CAPITA \8I0- 1900 


IN DOLLARS 
(+9.66 
109-78 107.59 
59.97 
43.94 é : 
3l 
27.43 | | 
1810 1840 ’50 60 ‘10 80 =6’90 


INCREASE 185071900 2837, 


DIAGRAM NO. 3 


1900 


Tue Natrona, GrocraPpHic MaGaAZzINE 


handling was further reduced and pro- 
uction greatly stimulated. 


No 2.—INCREASE IN VALUE OF MANU- 
FACTURES, 1810 TO 1840, AND IN EACH 
DECADE FROM 1840 TO 1900 


This shows the actual increase in the 
value of manufactures reported in each 
census year, as compared with its pre- 
decessor, and confirms what has just 
been said relative to the growth in the 
decades 1860-1870 and 1880-1890 and 
1890-1900. 


No. 3.—VALUE OF MANUFACTURES PER 
CAPITA, 1810 TO 1900 


The very great increase in popula- 
tion suggests, of itself, a great increase 
in manufacturing, and it is therefore 
proper to show the value per capita of 
the manufactures of the United States 
in each census year. It will be seen 
that the value of manufactures reported 
in 1810 and 1840 averaged about $28 
per capita, and are now about $170 per 
capita, or three times as much for each 
individual at present as in 1860, four 
times as much as in 1850, and six times 
as much as in 1840. This indicates 
that the per capita value of manufact- 
ures consumed by the masses has in- 
creased at about this rate, as 97 per 
cent of the manufactures are consumed 
at home, while the fact that prices have 
greatly fallen meanwhile indicates that 
the quantity consumed is probably five 
times as much per capita as in 1860 and 
ten times as much as in 1840. 


No. 4.—NUMBER OF PERSONS IN EACH 
1,000 ENGAGED IN MANUFACTURING 
AND AGRICULTURE, 1870 TO 1900 


This shows the number of persons in 
each 1,000 engaged in manufacturing 
and agriculture, respectively. It will 
be seen that the number engaged in 
manufacturing has increased from 53 
per thousand to 74 per thousand, an in- 
crease of 40 per cent since 1870, while 


Tue Unirep Stares: Her InpustrRigs BOs 


the number engaged in agriculture has NUMBER OF PERSONS IN EACH 1000 ENGAGED 
decreased from 152 to 135 per thousand, iy WaniiFACTURING AND AGRICULTURE 


a decrease of 12% per cent, in the same 
time, showing the trend of labor from 1870 71900 


agriculture to manufacturing. IN AGRICULTURE 


No. 5.—TOTAL NUMBER OF PERSONS 
ENGAGED IN MANUFACTURES AND es 154 
AGRICULTURE, RESPECTIVELY, 1870 — IN MANUFACTURING 


TO 1900 isms 
While there is no desire to measure 

the growth of manufacturing by that 

of any other industry or make invidious 

comparisons, it seems not improper to 


call attention to the relative growth of 

the manufacturing industry as compared sate 
with agriculture, which was formerly 

considered the chief occupation of the Bo ey 

people of the United States, and which 

still furnishes two-thirds of our enor- 

mous exportations. This diagram 

shows the actual increase and percent- 

age of increase in the total number of 

persons engaged in manufactures and me Go Sy EN 


agriculture respectively, and their rela- 1870 80 “30. 1300 
: ee INCREASE 1870%1900 407, 
| 


DECREASE 18701900 
ee 7 


tive growth in the past 30 years. It 
will be seen that those engaged in man- 
ufacture have increased from 2 millions DIAGRAM NO. 4 
to over 5% millions, and those in agri- 


culture from about 6 millions to 10% TOTAL NUMBER OF PERSONS ENGAGED IN MANU- 
millions, and that while twice as many FACTURES AND AGRICULTURE RESPECTIVELY 


persons are still engaged in agriculture 

as in manufacture, the relative growth 187 Ore 190 0 

has been much more rapid in the man- 

ufacturing industry. The number en- 

gaged in manufactures have nearly 

trebled, while the number engaged in PERSONS ENGAGED IN PERSONS ENGAGED IN 
agriculture has not quite doubled. MANUFACTURE. AGRICULTURE 


No. 6.—VALUE OF PRODUCTS OF MAN- 
UFACTURING AND AGRICULTURE, 
RESPECTIVELY, 1870 TO 1900 10.4 


The relative growth on the part of AG 
manufactures has also been more rapid 77 
than that of agriculture, since manu- 
factures occupy a comparatively new 5.7 5.9 
field, while agriculture had pretty well 4.7 | | 


prior to 1880, since which the manu- 27 
factures have made their greatest gains. | | 


developed the most productive sections | | 
1870 '80 ’90 1900 


ACTUAL INCREASE 3,665, 141, 
GAIN 1787, 


1870 ‘80 ‘90 1900 
ACTUAL INCREASE 4 515,848, 
GAIN 75 7 


DIAGRAM NO, 5 


306 


VALUE OF PRODUCTS OF MANUFACTURE ‘AGRICULTURE 


RESPECTIVELY 18707 1900 


'N MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 


MANUFACTURE "| AGRICULTURE 
9372 
5369 
| 3764 
2460 
/ 2212 | | | 
'80 +90 1900 | | ‘90 1900 
INCREASE $8,806,954, 124. INCREASE $ 1,806, |+6, 779. 
GAIN 208 7% GAIN 927 
; DIAGRAM NO. 6 
VALUE OF MANUFACTURES EXPORTED 
1800 ro 1902. “ete 


IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 


228.5 
hed Bi 
102.8 
68.2 
wae | 
thet 
3.8 [. 
2. 5 
2 | 


‘60 ‘70 ‘80 
DIAGRAM NO. 7 


‘20 ‘40 ‘96 1902 


Tue Natrona GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


The increase in the value of manu- 
factured products from 1870 to 1900 
was 208 per cent, while that of agri- 
cultural products was 92 per cent. I 
present these figures of total values of 
manufactures and agricultural products 
respectively merely for the purpose of 
showing the relative growth rather than 
relative value of product. A mere com- 
parison of the aggregate value of man- 
ufactures with aggregate value of agri- 
cultural products would manifestly do 
injustice to agriculture, since, as al- 
ready explained, the statement of the 
gross value of manufactures contains 
many duplications, while there are but 
few duplications in the statement of total 
products of agriculture. But a com- 
parison to show the relative growth of 
the two industries, or the percentage of 
growth in each, seems not improper, 
since the duplications of value in the 
statement of total manufactures have 
existed in all census reports, and 4 fairly 
accurate estimate of the percentage of 
growth may therefore be had for use 
in comparing with the percentage of 
growth in agricultural products. 

One especially interesting fact which 
the recent census developed is that our 
manufacturing industry draws 80 per 
cent of its raw material from farms of 
the country and actually utilizes one- 
half of the agricultural products of the 
country. The great cotton and woolen 
manufacturing industries obtain their 
raw material from the agriculturist, the 
material used by the manufacturer of 
leather originates on the farm or ranch, 
as do also those used in the manufacture 
of wines and liquors, the tobacco man- 
ufacturing industry, the milling and 
canning industries, and various other 
lines of manufacture. The census esti- 
mates that 80 per cent of the raw material 
used in manufacturing isthe product of 
agriculture, and that 51 per cent of the 
value of the products of agriculture was 
purchased and used by the manufact- 
urers of the country as raw material in 


Tue UNITED STATES: 


their manufacturing. This suggests 
the importance of the manufacturing 
industry to,the farmer, to say nothing of 
the market furnished him by nearly 6 
million people finding employment in 
the factories and workshops of the 
country. 


No. 7.—VALUE OF MANUFACTURES 
EXPORTED, 1800 TO 1902 


I want now to speak briefly of the 
effect of this increase in manufactures 
upon our foreign trade. Much has 
been said in recent years about the in- 
crease of our exports of manufactures, 
and quite justly, for the growth, es- 
pecially in the past decade, has been 
very great. The growth of the entire 
century, taken asa whole, has been re- 
markable, but especially so in the past 
decade, as will be seen from this dia- 
gram, which shows that the exportation 
of manufactures in 1800 was about two 
and one-half million dollars; in 1840, 
II millions ; in 1860, 40 millions; in 
1880, 102 millions, and in 1890, 151 
millions, but that in the short period 
from 1890 to 1902, only 12 years, the 
increase was nearly double that of the 
go years from 1800 to 1890, making the 
total exports of manufactures in 1902 
403 million dollars. 


No. 8 —PER CENT WHICH MANUFACT- 
URES FORMED OF IMPORTS AND EX- 
PORTS, 1820 TO 1902 


It is not so much, however, in the 
power to supply foreign markets in 
which our manufacturers have made 
their great record as in their complete 
control of the home market among 
80 million prosperous people. ‘They 
have so fully supplied that market that 
they have steadily reduced the share 
which manufactures form of the im- 
ports, while they were also increasing 
the share which manufactures formed 
of the exports. This diagram shows 
the percentage which manufactures 
have formed of the imports and ex- 


Her Inpusrrik&s 2105 
ports since 1820. "The share which 
they formed of the imports has steadily 
decreased, from 44.9 per cent in 1820 
to 16.6 per cent in 1902, and the share 
which they form of the exports has 
steadily increased from 7% per cent in 
1820 to 30.8 per cent in 1902. 


No. 9.—DISTRIBUTION. OF MANUFACT- 
URES EXPORTED 


Before leaving this subject, you will 
perhaps be interested to know whati be- 
comes of the manufactures which are 


PER CENT WHICH MANUFACTURES FORMED 
IMPORTS **aEXPORTS. [820% 1902. 


44.9 
IMPORTS. EXPORTS. 
37.9 
27.9 
17.8 
20.0 
1S.0 
16.6 13.0 
| | | 
820 ‘50 ‘70 ‘90-1902 1820 '50 ‘70 ‘90 


DIAGRAM NO. 8 


exported from the United States. ‘T‘his 
diagram shows the distribution of man- 
ufactures by grand divisions. You will 
see that fully one-half of the manu- 
factures exported goes to Europe, the 
greatest manufacturing center of the 
world. Of the 410 million dollars’ 
worth of manufactures exported in 
Ig01, 215 millions value went to Eu- 
rope, 96 millions to North America 
other than the United States, 33 mil- 


OF 


"95 1902 


308 


lions to Asia, 29 millions to Oceania, 
27 millions to South America, and 10 
millions to Africa. 


No. to.—VALUE OF MANUFACTURERS’ 

RAW MATERIAL IMPORTED AND PER 
{ CENT WHICH IT FORMED OF TOTAL 
+ IMPORTS, 1820 TO 1902 


Still another effect of this growth of 
our manufactures has been an increasing 
demand for the class of manufacturing 


Tue Natrona, GrocrarpHic MAGAZINE 


the most remarkable growth has been 
in the years since 1890, the total having 
increased from 178 millions in 1890 to 
327 millions in 1902, the gain in the 12 
years since 1890 being nearly equal to 
that of the 70 years from 1820 to 18go0. 
From the second group of lines it will 
be seen that manufacturers’ raw mate- 
rials, which formed lessthan 6 per cent 
of the imports in-1820, now form 36 per 
cent of the greatly increased total. 


DISTRIBUTION OF EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURES 


IN 


CENT. 
EUROPE...... 


1901. 


N.AMERICA....| 49 SiianaESER aR Specs $ 96,066,893. 


66 EE $ 33,781,503. 
OCEANIA...| 80 cm F, 29,006,780. 
S.AMERICA 60 Mmmm $ 27,170,642. 


AFRICA.....| 40 Sm $10,576,888. 


DIAGRAM NO. 9 


material which we do not produce at 
home, such as fibers, rubber, silk, tin, 
chemicals and many other articles. This 
diagram shows the increase of manu- 
facturers’ raw materials imported since 
1820. It will be seen that their total 
importation grew from 3 million dollars 
in 1820 to 61 millions in 1860, then 
suddenly increased to 160 millions in 
1880 and 178 millions in 1890 ; but that 


No. 11.—RELATIVE VALUE OF MANU- 
FACTURERS’ MATERIAL AND ALL 
OTHER IMPORTATIONS, 1890 TO 1902 


This shows the value of manufactur- 
ers’ material imported in 1890, Ig00, and 
1902, and compares its value with that 
of all other imports. It will be seen 
that while manufacturers’ material in- 
creased, the other imports decreased. 
Manufacturers’ material increased from 


Tue Unirep Srarss: 


VALUE OF MANUFACTURERS RAW MATERIAL 


IMPORTED “saPER CENT WHICH IT FORMED 
OF TOTAL IMPORTS, 18207 1902. 


327.6 


VALUE OF RAW 
MATERIAL 


IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 


Baa PER CENT OF 
TOTAL IMPORTS 36.2 
31.8 
25.5 
178.4 
160.0 
alle V7 
3 


1820 ro 60 ‘80 90 1900 1902 


| ‘40 ‘60 80 ‘39 1902 
DIAGRAM NO. Io 


265 millions to 420 millions, while the 
other importations decreased from 524 
millions to 480 millions. 


No. 12.—GROWTH OF DOMESTIC EX- 
PORTS, AND SHARE WHICH MANU- 
FACTURES FORMED OF THE SAME, 
1870-1901 


In this illustration the broken por- 
tion of the lines indicates the share which 
manufatures formed of the grand total. 
The diagram covers only the period 
from 1870 to 1901. A more extended 
statement, however, would showthat ex- 
ports of domestic manufactures formed 
in 1800 but 7.8 per cent of the total ex- 
ports, and amounted to but 2% million 
dollars, and that the growth in the first 
half of the century was extremely slow, 
having reached only 17% millions in 
1850 and forming but 13 per cent of the 
total exports. In 1875 the exports of 


‘manufactures amounted to 92% million 


dollars and formed 16.5 per cent of the 


Her INpustTRIES 


SOY) 


total exports, and in 1900 were 433 mil- 
lions and formed 31.6 per cent of the 
total exports. In 1902 they were 403 
millions in value and formed 29.7 per 
cent of the total, the reduction in 1902 
as compared with 1900 being chiefly due 
to the excessive home demand for certain 
lines of manufacture, notably iron and 
steel. 


No. 13-—GROWTH OF EXPORTS OF 
MANUFACTURES, AND SHARE WHICH 
IRON AND STEEL FORMED OF THE 
SAME, 1870-1901 


In this illustration the broken lines 
show the share which iron and steel 


IMPORTS OF ALL OTHER, 
MANUFACTURERS IMPORTS 
MATERIAL 1890 + 1902., 
1890, 1900+ 1902, 
S24 
4B0 
4290 
390 
| 4 
19990. 1900 1902, 1990. 1902. 


DIAGRAM NO. II 


310 


formed of the total manufactures ex- 
ported in each year from 1870 to Igo1. 
The growth in the exportation of iron 
and steel manufactures has been phe- 
nomeually rapid, tke total value of iron 
and steel exported being less than two 
million dollars in 1850, 9 millions in 
1875, and 122 millionsin 1900. For the 
fiscal year 1902 the total was 98% mil- 
lions, the reduction compared with 1900 
being due, as already indicated, to the 
unusual home demand for iron and steel 


GROWTH OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC PRODUCTS 
AND SHARE WHICH MANUFACTURES FORMED OF THAT 


TOTAL, 1870 T0 190). 


(IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS? 
1460 


| 
70 
| ‘| 
a (4 
210 1203 g 
a G@ g 8 
1032 oo a a 
g 8 4@ 
aoe 2 
aus acs «OB a 
B24 BH >, 9 OO 
ows g 8 g@ 
oo © 8 g a 
B a 
) a a 
499 
a 
376 «of 
a 
| 
1870 75 ‘80 ’85 ‘90 ‘95 ‘96 ‘97 ‘98 ‘99 1900 1901 
PERCENTAGE 
WHICH MANUFAC 
TURES FORMED 715 166 125 20.2 179 23.) 265 26% 240 282 316 282 
OF TOTAL 
EXPORTS 


DIAGRAM NO. 12 


manufactures for use in domestic indus- 
tries, this demand being so great that 
the importations of iron and steel in 
1903 exceed by far those of any year in 
the last decade. 


No. 14.—EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURES 
OF IRON AND STEEL FROM 1870 TO 
IgO1 
This illustration shows the growth in 

exports of iron and steel manufactures 


THe Narionat GgocrRaAPHic MAGAZINE 


during the period from 1870 to 1got, 
and illustrates the statements already 
made regarding the very rapid growth 
in this class of our manufactures. ‘The 
United States has in recent years be- 
come the world’s largest producer of 
iron ore and pig iron, her total produc- 
tion of pig iron in 1902 exceeding that 
of the United Kingdom, Germany, and 
Belgium. 


No. 15.—PROGRESS IN THE PRINCIPAL 
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES FROM 
1870 TO Igor 


This diagram is intended to illustrate 
the growth in the production of the 
great articles which enter into manu- 
factures, such as pig iron, cotton, and 
coal. The growth of coal production 
was from 32 million tons in 1870 to 
261 millions in 1901; of pig iron, from 
1,665,000 tons in 1870 to 15,879,000 
tons in Igor, and over 18 millions in 
1902. ‘The growthof cotton manufact- 
ured at home was from 857,000 bales to 
3,547,000 bales. The importation of the 
principal raw materials for use in manu- 
facturing increased from 20 million dol- 
lars in 1870 to 176 millions in 1g01— 
all illustrating the rapid growth in the 
manufacturing industries of the United 
States. The capital employed in manu- 
facturing is shown by the census of 1870 
at 2,118 million dollars, and that of 1900 
at 9,874 millions, and the value of manu- 
factures turned out in 1870, 4,232 mil- 
lions, and in 1900, 13,040 millions. 

Having now shown the growth in 
manufactures compared with conditions 
in our own country at the beginning of 
the centnry, I want to say a few words 
about the growth of manufactures in the 
United States compared with the growth 
in other countries, especially those great 
manufacturing countries of Europe— 
France, Germany, and the United King- 
dom. ‘These three countries produce 
practically two-thirds of the manufact- 
ures of all Europe, and therefore it 
seems unnecessary to take into consider- 
ation in this study the other and smaller 


TOTAL VALUE OF MANUFACTURES 
EXPORTED, 1870 10 190), AND THE 


SHARE WHICH IRON AND STEEL 
FORMED OF THAT TOTAL 


412 


Zz 
S 
Py 


29 


| 
| 
i 
| 

ig3 

| 

| 


° 


‘ 1870 1880 1885 oO | 

{ PERCENT WHICH ire] 85 1890 1895 1898 1901 
«IRONS STEEL FORM- 

ED OF TOTAL MAN- 016.2 14.7 IS 172 «I74 tht 28 


_ UFACTURE S 
EXPORTED. 


DIAGRAM NO. 13 


countries. Curiously, even these old 
and well developed countries do not take 
as complete a census of manufactures as 
does the United States, and a compari- 
son of growth year by year or even 
decade by decade is difficult. That dis- 
tinguished statistician, the late Mr Mul- 
hall, however, made shortly before his 
death some careful calculations on the 
value of the manufactures of the prin- 
cipal countries of the world, especially 
those of Europe, at various dates, and 
these are generally accepted as the best 
available information on this subject. 
I shall now show you by the same pro- 
cess which I have applied in the study 
of our own figures his statement of the 
value of manufactures in France, Ger- 


Tue Unitrep Srarss: 


Her INpusTRIEs 


ZIFF 


many, and the United Kingdom from 
1840 to the close of the century, com- 
paring their growth with that of the 
United States. 


No. 16.—VALUE OF MANUFACTURES IN 
FRANCE, GERMANY, THE UNITED 
KINGDOM, AND THE UNITED STATES, 
1840, 1860, 1888, AND 1894 


In the four groups of lines shown you 
in this diagram is presented Mr Mul- 
hall’s statement of the relative value 
of manufactures produced in the four 


EXPORTS OF MANUFACTURES OF IRON AND STEEL 
1870 TO 190) 
(IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS) 


7 


7o 


32 


26 


1870 «1880 671885 1890 1895 1898 (90h 


DIAGRAM NO. I4 


a7 


312 


countries, France, Germany, the United 
Kingdom, and the United States, at the 
four dates which I have named, 1840, 
1860, 1888, and 1894, the term ‘‘ Ger- 
many ’’ applying in the earlier periods 
to those States now included in the Ger- 
man Empire. ‘The first group of lines 
indicates the value of the manufactures 
of each of the four countries in 1840 as 
shown by Mr Mulhall’s figures, ar- 


Tur Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


of lines I have retained the same scale 
of measurement per million used in the 
first group, and the same relative posi- 
tion for each of the countries. In 1860 
you will note that the United States 
had almost overtaken Germany and 
France, and that its manufactures were 
about two-thirds in value those of the 
United Kingdom. In 1888 the United 
States had outstripped all of her com- 


PROGRESS IN THE PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 
1870 ~ 1901. 
7 13040 
158749 SIs 
261 
3547 
17o 
M7 
4232 
857 
2il BS 
18 

32 lebs 20 ff 
° te 5 ie ° ° fe] i=) ° eS i 
dk dk dk dk dk dh dk 4k 
coaL PIG [RON COTTON PRINCIPAL CAPITAL VALUE OF IMPORTS | EXPORTS 
(million (thousand MANUFACT- MFG.MA- EMPLOYED MANUFACT- OF IRON& OFIRON & 
tons) tons) URED TERIALS (in mil- URES (in STEEL STEEL 
(thousand Imp. (values lionsofdol- millions of MFRS. (in MERS. (in 
bales) in millions lars) dollars) niillions millions 
of dollars) ofdollars) of dollars) 


DIAGRAM NO. I5 


ranged in the order of magnitude, the 
United States the smallest, 467 million 
dollars, the European countries follow- 
ing in the order, Germany, France, 
United Kingdom. It will be seen that 
in 1840 the value of manufactures in 
the United States was less than one- 
third of those of Germany or France, 
and less than one-fourth of those of the 
United Kingdom. In the other groups 


petitors in the race, the value of her 
manufactures, as will be readily seen, 
being more than those of France and 
Germany combined and nearly twice as 
great as those of the United Kingdom. 
In 1894, as will be seen by a glance at 
the final group of lines, the United 
States made still greater gains over her 
competitors, the value of her manu- 
factures in that year being nearly as 


Tue UNITED STATEs: 


great as those of France, Germany, and 
the United Kingdom combined. 


No. 17.—GROWTH OF MANUFACTURES 
IN FRANCE, GERMANY, THE UNITED 
KINGDOM, AND THE UNITED STATES, 
1840 to 1894 


Before leaving this subject it may be 
interesting to note the actual rate of 


Her INpDusTRIES 


ous 


but not rapid, the increase being from 
$1, 606,000,000 in 1840 to $2,900,000, 000 
in 1894, an increase of-80 per cent. In 
the case of Germany the growth was 
more rapid—from $1,484,000,000 to 
$3,359,000,000, an increase of 126 per 
cent. In the United Kingdom the 
growth was at about the same rate as 
that of Germany—from $1,883,000,000 


VALUE OF MANUFACTURES IN FRANCE, GERMANY, UNITED KINGDOM 


AND UNITED STATES. 1840, 1860, 1888, 894.  uS.9498 
IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 
U.S. 7.022 
U.K.4,263 
U.K.3,990 
GERMANY 
GERMANY 3.357 
om ae 2.837 BRACE 
Ca F eee re : 
GERMANY 606 a3 Us.1907 » 
U-S. i | : | 
1Ia@4oO 1860 1Ie@gu 


DIAGRAM NO. 16 


growth in manufactures in each of the 
four countries which have just been 
discussed, and I present in this diagram 
lines and figures which will show to the 
eye the actual growth in each country 
at the dates already named. ‘The first 
group of lines relates to France, the 
second to Germany, the third to the 
United Kingdom, and the fourth tothe 
United States. In France it will be 
seen that the growth has been steady, 


i8ese 


3,000,000, also a gain of 126 
per cent. In the United States the 
growth, it will be seen, was far more 
rapid than that of other countries— 
from $467,000,000 in 1840 to $9,498,- 
000,000 in 1894, a growth of nearly 
2,000 per cent. In other words, the 
manufactures of France in 1894 were 
scarcely double those of 1840; those of 
Germany, nearly two and a half times 
as great asin 1840; those of the United 


to $4,2 


314 


Kingdom, nearly two and a half times 
as great as in 1840, and those of the 
United States practically twenty times 
as great as in 1840. 

The causes of our rapid growth in 
manufactures, as compared with these 
European countries, are not difficult to 
find. The 5 great articles which enter 
most largely into the manufacturing 


GROWTH OF MANUFACTURES IN FRANCE. GERMANY. 


Tue NarionaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


the United Kingdom was the largest 
producer of pig iron; today we have 
not only far surpassed that country in 
the production of iron, but in 1902 our 
production of pig iron actually exceeded 
the combined production of the three 
greatest pig-iron-producing countries of 
Europe—the United Kingdom, Ger- 
many, and Belgium—and our produc- 


9.498 


UNITED KINGDOM * UNITED STATES. 1840 1894 


IN MILLIONS QF DOLLARS 


3357 
2,300 
2. 092") 


2837 
1995 
1606 | ayn : 


840 ‘60 88 “94 ee e in Ou 
FRANCE. MANY. 


PER CENT OF INCREASE 1840-94; 81 PER GE ul INCREASE ; 


7,022 
4%263 
3.990 
2,808 
18835 1,907 
4 7 


1840 "60 80 ‘94 i ‘eo 80 ‘94 


UNITED KINGDOM. —_- UNITED STATES. 
PERCENT OF INCREASE, 179. PER CENT OF INCREASE; 1932. 


DIAGRAM NO. I7 


industries today are iron, wood, copper, 
cotton, and coal, the latter being the 
important and necessary factor in trans- 
forming the others into manufactures. 
In each of these great requirements of 
manufacturing the United States has 
larger known ‘supplies than any other 
country of the world, and better trans- 
portation facilities for assembling them 
for manufacturing. A few years ago 


tion of steel exceeds that of other coun- 
triesin a like proportion. Our production 
of pig iron has grown from less than one 
million tons in 1865 to over 17 millions 
in 1902, and of steel from 20 thousand 
tons in 1867 to over 13 million tons in 
1901. Of copper the United States now 
produces one-half that of the entire 
world, our production of copper having 
grown from less than 1,000 tons in 


Tue Unrrep Srarss: 


1850 to 270 thousand tons in 1900. Of 
cotton, another important factor in 
manufacturing, our production has 
grown from three million bales in 1870 
to an average of more than ten million 
bales per annum during the last five 
years, and the United States now pro- 
duces three-fourths of the cotton of the 
world and turns one-third of that pro- 
duct into manufactures. Of timber the 
United States is the world’s largest pro- 
ducer. Of coal, for use in assembling 
and transforming these articles into 
manufactures, the United States now 
produces more than any other country, 
her production having grown from 32 
million long tons in 1870 to 261 millions 
in1go1. In transportation facilities, by 
which these products are assembled for 
manufacturing, railways have grown 
from 20,000 miles in 1856 to 200,000 
miles in 1902, and are now two-fifths 
those of the entire world. Vessels pass- 
ing through the Sault Ste. Marie canal 
have increased from 106 thousand tons 
register in 1855 to 25 million tons reg- 
ister in 1902, or nearly 20 times that 
passing through the Suez canal; and 
freight rates have fallen to about one- 
fifth those of 1860 and less than half 
those of 1880. 

These comparisons of the growth in 
the production of the great staples re- 
quired for manufacturing may be more 
readily and interestingly presented by 
some simple diagrams showing the rela- 
tive growth in production in the United 
States and those countries which may 
be considered in any degree our com- 
petitors. 


No. 18.—GROWTH OF COAL PRODUC- 
TION IN THE UNITED STATES, 
UNITED KINGDOM, AND GERMANY, 
1875 TO igor 


One of the important causes of the 
growth of our manufacturing is our 
plentiful coal supply and the ease with 
whichitis produced. The United States 
now actually produces one-third of the 


Her InNpustTRIEs 


345 


entire coal supply of the world. The 
United States, the United Kingdom, 
and Germany produce three-fourths of 
the coal of the world, and I show 
in this diagram the growth of coal 
production in each of these three coun- 
tries from 1875 to1gor. It will be seen 
that the United States and Germany 
started abreast in 1875, with a produc- 
tion of about 50 million tons each, but 
far below the United Kingdom, which 


COAL PRODUCTION OF GERMANY, UNITED KINCDOM*aUNITED OTATES 


1875 T° 1901. 
1875 


TONS 


(35,000,000 


49,000.000 | is 


1901 


DIAGRAM NO. 18 


produced about 135 million tons. The 
United States advanced much more rap- 
idly than Germany, and in 1898 passed 
the United Kingdom, and is now suffi- 
ciently in the lead to assure that she 
will continue the greatest coal-produc- 
ing country of the world. This asser- 
tion is fully justified by the fact that 
the area of our coal fields. is 10 times as 


great as those of all Hurope, and they . 


RUG 


are only equaled in area by those of 
China, which must remain undeveloped 
until transportation facilities make their 
supplies available. 


No. 19.—COAL PRODUCTION OF THE 
WORLD, 1870-1901 


This diagram shows the growth in 
coal production of the world from 1870 
to 1901. ‘The first pair of lines shows 
the production of Germany in 1870 and 
Ig01 respectively, the second pair the 


THe NarionaL GreocraPHic MAGAZINE 


No. 20.—PIG-IRON PRODUCTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES COMPARED WITH 
THAT OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 
AND GERMANY 


An equally important factor in manu- 
facturing is the supply of iron and steel. 
I have already told you that the United 
States produces one-third of the coal 
of the world, and I may now add that 
she produces 30 per cent, or nearly one- 
third, of the iron ore of the world. Of 
iron and steel, as of coal, the three great 
producing nations of the world are the 


RELATIVE GROWTH IN COAL PRODUCTION IN GERMANY, THE UNITED KINGDOM, 
THE UNITED STATES AND ALL OTHER COUNTRIES. 
1870 — 190). 


PRODUCTION IN [870 % 1901. 
(IN MILLIONS OF TONS) 
290 


ibs 


56 


tau 


37 


UNITED ALL 
STATES OTHER 
COUNTRIES 


UNITED 
KINGDOM 


INCREASE FROM 1870 TO !90). 
(iN MILLIONS OF 10NS) 


gs 


7 


UNITED ALL 
STATES OTHER 
COUNTRIES 


UNITED 
KINGDOM 


GERMANY 


DIAGRAM NO. I9 


United Kingdom, the third pair the 
United States, and the fourth pair the 
remainder of the world. In the second 
group of lines is shown the increase in 
production from 1870 to 1901 in Ger- 
many, the United Kingdom, the United 
States, and the remainder of the world. 
It will be seen that the gain of the 
United States in that time was equal to 
that of Germany and the United King- 
dom combined. 


United States, the United Kingdom, 
and Germany. ‘This diagram shows 
the growth of pig-iron production in 
the United States, United Kingdom, 
and Germany since 1877. It will be 
seen that the United States and Ger- 
many started abreast in 1877, far below 
the United Kingdom, and that in 1901 
the United Kingdom and Germany were 
about equal, but with the United States 
so far above them that her output was 


Tue UNITED STaATEs: 


actually equal to the combined produc- 
tion of the United Kingdom and Ger- 
many, and in 1902 was equal to both 
those countries, with Belgium thrown 
in for good measure. 


No. 21.—STEEL PRODUCTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES, UNITED KINGDOM, 
AND GERMANY, 1877 TO igor 


In steel production the progress of 
the United States has been even more 
striking, compared with that of her chief 
competitors, than in iron or coal. ‘The 
United States, United Kingdom, and 
Germany, it will be seen from this dia- 
gram, started nearly abreast in 1877, 
but the United States so far surpassed 
them that her production of steel is now 
not only greater than that of both com- 
bined, but is actually 44 per cent of that 
of the entire world. 


No. 22.—COPPER PRODUCTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES COMPARED WITH 
THAT OF OTHER COUNTRIES 


Copper, which was always an im- 
portant metal, has become especially so 
in the recent years in which the use of 
electricity has so marvelously increased ; 
and, as the demand for copper increased, 
the supply of the United States has so 
increased that she has not only out- 
stripped all her rivals, but now produces 
one-half the copper of the world. The 
four principal copper-producing coun- 
tries are: United States, Spain, Chile, 
and Japan. It will be seen from this 
diagram that while all these countries 
were nearly abreast in production in 
1883, at the beginning of the world’s 
great demand for copper, the United 
States immediately began her upward 
movement in production, while the other 
countries have made little change in 
their output. Asa result we now pro- 
duce as much copper as all the other 
countries of the world combined. 


No. 23.—COTTON PRODUCTION OF THE 
WORLD, AND SHARE OF THE UNITED 
STATES IN THAT PRODUCTION 


Another extremely important factor 
in manufacturingis cotton. Of this the 


Her INpustTrRikEs 


Su 7 


PIG IRON PRODUCTION OF GERMANY, UNITED KINGDOM* UNITED STATES 
1877+ 1901. 
1877 1901 
TONS 
16,132,408 


7,886,000 


TONS 7,835,000 


6,714, SIO 


2,099,500 
1.932.700 


NO. 20 


DIAGRAM 


OTEEL PRODUCTION OF GERMANY, UNITED KINGDOM AND THE 
UNITED STATES 1877721901. 


1877 1901 


TONS 
13,689,173 


6,394,222 


@@ 8 5,080,000 


DIAGRAM NO, 21 


318 


COPPER PRODUCTION OF GERMANY, SPAIN, JAPAN AND THE 
UNITED STATES 188370 190). 


1883 1901 


TONS 
270,998 


TONS 


900000000000000000 090°) S4482 


52,399 
4353 pe 

9892 8neaag 7916 
16,461 ee 22,069 
772\ TOs) 


DIAGRAM NO. 22 


COTTON PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD 1302 


(IN BALES OF 500 POUNDS) 


U.S 
(0,700,000 10,700,000 
WORLD 1902 U.S. 1870-1902 
7,311,000 
761,000 
ASIA 
3,500,000 
3,114,000 
AFRICA 
,070 000 
AMERICA 
SOUTH OF U.S. 
250.000 | 
(870 ‘80 90 1902 


DIAGRAM NO. 23 


Tue Nationa GrocrarHic MAGAZINE 


United States produces practically three- 
fourths of the world’s entire supply, and 
has doubled her production since 1880, 
and shown an ability to double the pres- 
ent product if the world demands it. 
This diagram shows the world’s pro- 
duction of cottonin 1902. ‘The first line 
is for all of America south of the United 
States ; the second, Africa; the third, 
Asia; and the fourth, the United States. 
The second group of lines shows the 
production of the United States in 1870, 
1880, 1890, and 1902, indicating the 
growth of production in response to the 
world’s demands. 


No. 24.—RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED 
STATES AND EUROPE, 1850-1902 


While the production of raw materials 
isan important factor in manufacturing, 
the power of quickly and cheaply as- 
sembling those materials for actual man- 
ufacturing and of distributing them after 
manufacture is another important factor, 
and in this the United States surpasses 
all other nations. In this diagram 
compare the railways of the United 
States not merely with those of a single 
country, but with those of all Europe. 
In 1850 our railways were two-thirds as 
great in length as those of Europe ; in 
1870, five-sixths as great ; in 1880, nine- 
tenths, and in 1902 they actually ex- 
ceeded those of all Europe by 12 per 
cent. The second group of lines shows 
the relative railway mileage of the 
United States in 1850, 1870, 1880, and 
1902, and indicates the rapidity of 
growth. 

I have now shown you, first, the in- 
crease in production of manufactures ; 
second, the increase in production of 
raw material, and, third, the increase 
of transportation facilities. These three 
facts suggest that probably the manu- 
facturing industries have extended far 
into the interior of the country, and 
especially to those sections where the 
raw material or the coal is produced, 
and an examination of the records of 


Tue UNITED STATEs: 


the census shows that this is true. We 
are accustomed to think of the New 
England and Middle States as the chief 
seat of the manufacturing industries, 
and it is rather surprising to know that 
the center of the manufacturing indus- 
tries has steadily moved westward until 
it is now located in the State of Ohio. 

It is equally surprising to know that 
Ohio ranks first of all the States of the 
Union in the manufacture of carriages 
and wagons and of clay products, and 
second in agricultural implements and 
in iron and steel manufactures. Illinois 
holds first rank in the manufacture of 
agricultural implements, cars, bicycles, 
and distilled liquors,and second in men’s 
clothing, furniture, musical instruments, 
soap, and candles. Wisconsin ranks 
first in lumber and timber production, 
Minnesota first in flour manufacturing, 
Missouri first in the manufacture of 
tobacco, Texas first in the manufacture 
of cotton-seed oil cake, Colorado first 
in lead, and California first in explo- 
‘sives, wines, and preserved fruits. The 
various manufacturing interests have 
extended far into the interior of the 
country, and in some cases across the 
entire continent. 

While the plentiful supply of raw 
materials and unexcelled facilities for 
assembling them are perhaps the most 
striking among the causes of our manu- 
facturing success, we must add another 
factor, thestrenuousness of labor. ‘This 
is one which we, as Americans, scarcely 
appreciate, because it is a condition to 
which we have always been accustomed; 
but that it has been an important factor 
in our success over other nations is evi- 
denced by the attention which it receives 
from representative men of other coun- 
tries who have studied our success and 
sought to learn its causes. Mr J. S. 
Jeans, secretary of the British Iron 
Trade Association, who recently accom- 
panied a commission of iron and steel 
manufacturers sent to the United States 
to study conditions here, in his report 


Her INpDusTRIES 


SUG) 


says: ‘“‘One of the notable character- 
istics of the principal cities and indus- 
trial centers of the United States is the 
comparative absence of a leisured class. 
The typical American appears to live 
only to work, and to work at something 
that will be a life-long career of useful- 
ness to himself and the community. 
Every man, however rich, must have a 
calling in the United States.’’ Mr Lud- 


MILES OF RAILWAY IN THE U.S.%4 EUROPE 


1850, 1870, 1880, 1902. 


(in THOUSANDS OF MILES) 


GROWTH 


200 


UNITED STATES 


U.S. 
200 
EUROPE 
79 
EUROPE 
23 
EUROPE 
63 
53 
eRe oPE 
Ups 9 
1870 1880 1902 1850 


DIAGRAM NO. 24 


wig Max Goldberger, of Berlin, Royal 
Privy Councillor of Commerce and mem- 
ber of the Imperial German Consultative 
Board for Commercial Measures, who 
visited the United States in 1902, spend- 
ing some eight months studying our 
commercial conditions, says: ‘‘A sort of 
fanaticism for work seems to have taken 
hold of men in the United States. Labor 
is so intense in the centers of industry 


1850 re 1902 


‘70 ‘80 1902 


320 


that, barring sleep, it scarcely permits 
of any other recreation, and for that 
reason places of pleasure, if we except 
large towns, are veryrare. The fanati- 
cal desire for work, of which I have just 
spoken, begins in early youth, and 
almost as young as the industries of the 
country are the leaders of large enter- 
prises, many of them mere boys. Onthe 
other hand, there are few men who stop 
work and retire to live on their incomes, 
even when they have earned millions.’’ 

One other cause of our growth in 
production—and it is the last one which 
I shall suggest—is the greatness, the 
physical greatness, of our country. 
We do not realize, I think, how big we 
have grown. We proudly compare the 
growth of our manufacturing or exports 
with that of the United Kingdom, for 
example; but we do not, apparently, 
stop to consider that the area of Eng- 
land is less than that of the State of 
Kansas, and that of the entire United 
Kingdom less than that of Kansas and 
Nebraska combined. When we com- 
pare our own conditions with those of 
France, we forget that its area is less 
than that of our two Territories of Ari- 
zona and New Mexico combined. We 


Tue National, GrocraPHic MaGaZINE 


look with complacency upon the figures 
which compare our growth in manu- 
factures, commerce, and population 
with that of Germany, but overlook the 
fact that all of the German Empire is 
smaller than our single State of Texas. 
The area of the Thirteen Colonies, as 
defined by the Peace Treaty of 1783, 
was equal to that of the present United 
Kingdom, France, Germany, Norway, 
and Sweden, whose combined popula- 
tion today is 143 millions. The area 
added by the Louisiana Purchase is 
greater than the present area of Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, Austria, Hungary, and 
all of the Balkan States, with a com- 
bined population of 145 millions. The 
area added by the Florida Purchase -is 
more than that of the present Denmark, 
Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzer- 
land, whose population today is 18 mil- 
lions. The combined area of the Texan, 
Mexican, Oregon, and Alaskan addi- 
tions is nearly equal to that of all Euro- 
pean Russia, whose present population 
is 106 millions. Thus, our present area, 
including Alaska, may be said to prac- 
tically equal that of all Kurope, whose 
population is in round terms 4oo mil- 
lions of people. 


THE INTRODUCTION OF THE MANGO 


HE great popularity of the 
mango among the natives of the 
‘Tropics, who in most places pre- 

fer the fruit to the orange or banana, 
recently led the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture to study the mango witha 
view of ascertaining whether it might 
not be made as popular among the peo- 
ple of the United States as the orange 
and banana. Great quantities of man- 
goes are grown in Porto Rico, and it 
occurred to the Department that if the 
fruit was such as would find favor 
among the American people, a profit- 
able industry might be started on the 


island in exporting mangoes to the 
United States. Mr G. N. Collins, a 
specialist of the Department, was dis- 
patched to Porto Rico to investigate 
the question. He found the mango 
one of the most common fruits in the 
island, and during the season when it 
is ripe, May to August, eaten in larger 
quantities than any others, with the 
possible exception of the banana, which 
is used more as a vegetable and cooked 
in one form or other. Unfortunately, 
most of the mangoes at present grown 
in Porto Rico are, however, too fibrous 
and coarse to ever become popular in 


From G. N. Collins, U. S, Department of Agriculture 


Grove of Mango Trees, between Cabo Rojo and Joyua, P. R. 


BP? 


the United States. The best varieties, 
which are rich and delicate, are scarce 
at present; but Mr Collins believes that 
in a very short time, with more care in 
the cultivation of the tree and with the 
introduction of new varieties of mango, 
great quantities of the finest fruit can 
be grown and shipped to this country. 
He believes that the fruit would soon 
become immensely popular and equal, 
if not surpass in popularity, both the 
orange and banana. 

Mr Collins’ report to the Department 
of Agriculture* has recently been pub- 
lished, and from it the following notes 
are taken: 

Though European residents in the 
Tropics almost universally acquire a 
fondness for the mango, and in England 
the demand for it is steadily increasing, 
it having been found possible to make 
importations from India, notwithstand- 
ing the great distance, the mango is as 
yet little known in the United States, 
having been represented in our markets 
only by fruit of inferior varieties. These 
give no suggestion of the qualities of 
the better sorts, and tend rather to dis- 
courage than to increase the demand. 
If an effort similar to that which brought 
the banana into favor in the United 
States} could place an adequate sup- 
ply of good mangoes before the public, 
there is no apparent reason why this 
new tropical fruit should not repeat the 
history of its now popular predecessor. 

A taste for mangoes hasin most peo- 
ple to be cultivated; but once acquired, 
it is like a taste for olives, and becomes 
almost a craving. The milder flavored 


*“ The Mango in Porto Rico.”’ 
Collins, Department of Agriculture, Bureau 
of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 28. 


+ The banana was first introduced on a large 
scale into the United States by a steamship 
line which brought great quantities of bananas 
from the West Indies. It was not confidence 
in the latent popularity of the fruit that in- 
duced the steamship line to bring the bananas 
over, but a last effort to get freight for its 
vessels. 


By G. N. 


Tue NatrionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


varieties, in which no taste of turpentine 
is to be detected, are usually enjoyed 
even by the novice, but after one be- 
comes familiar with the fruit a slight 
taste of turpentine ceases to be disagree- 
able. ‘The fiber, however, that exists 
in the poorer varieties is an unmitigated 
evil, and renders the eating of a mango 
a serious operation. Persons forming 
their opinion of the fruit from these poor 
varieties usually indorse the proverbial 
statement that the mangois ‘‘a mass of 
tow saturated with turpentine;’’ but 
those acquainted with the fruit at its 
best are almost unanimously enthusi- 
astic in their praise. Elphinstone, the 
historian of India, says: 

‘The mango is the best fruit of India, 
at once rich and delicate, and all other 
fruits are comparatively insipid beside 
its intensity of taste. There is some- 
thing in it that is nothing less than vo- 
luptuous.”’ 

Good mangoes are produced in Amer- 
ica, but as yet in such small quantity 
that few persons have had an opportu- 
nity to taste any but inferior fruit. 
Sample lots of the more common and 
poorer varieties are frequently shipped 
to northern markets, and have doubtless. 
done much to hinder the growth of the 
trade. A first impression is very lasting, 
and first impressions of the mango based 
on such fruit are likely to be anything 
but favorable. Asan example, mangoes. 
are frequently to be found in the Wash- 
ington market, but we have never seen 
one that could be called good, even in 
comparison with the Porto Rican fruit. 

This impression will doubtless be dif- 
ficult to dispel; but if really good man- 
goes could be placed in the markets 
their increase in popular favor would be 
certain and the growing of mangoes 
might become a profitable pursuit. 

In spite of the fact that in all mango- 
producing countries the natives consider 
the fruit wholesome and perfectly safe, 
prejudice against it exists among some 
military officials and others, who con- 


vu 
=I 
s 
= 
=| 
as 
cal 
30 
< 
& 
° 
2 
a 
uv 
I 
| 
s 
b 
ise] 
[= 
vu 
fa) 
>) 
oD 
Ss 
se 
9 
(s) 
A 
ie) 
zl 
3 
- 
18) 


Branch of Mango Tree with Fruit, Tapachula, Mexico 


324 


From G. N. Collins, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


Mango Fruit, showing Method of Packing 


demn the fruit as positively dangerous. 
During the Spanish war this prejudice 
* was so strong that the soldiers in Porto 
Rico were prohibited from eating the 
mango, and many beautiful trees were 
cut down. This prejudice probably 
arose from eating the fruit when unripe, 
in which state, like most other fruits, 
it is unwholesome. 

In some parts of India the natives at 
one season of the year live almost exclu- 


Tue Nationa GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


sively on mangoes, apparently 
without harm. An extract 
from the Pharmacographia 
Indica, in Watt’s Dictionary, 
describes the fruit as ‘‘ invig- 
orating and refreshing, fat- 
tening, and slightly laxative 
and diuretic.”’ 

The mango tree (Wangifera 
indica) varies in height, ac- 
cording to the variety, from 
little more than a bush to a 
tree 50 to 70 feet high, with 
a trunk 6 to ro feet high and 
2 feet or more in diameter. 
The leaves are lanceolate, 
about 1 foot in length, taper- 
ing gradually to a narrow 
point, with a smooth, shining 
surface. ‘The young leaves 
are first pink, then red before 
turning green. The top is 
rounded and very dense. The 
bark is gray andsmooth. The 
flowers are small, reddish- 
white, or yellowish, borne in 
large upright racemes. The 
fruit varies greatly, accord- 
ing to the variety. In some 
kinds it is not more than 2 or 
3 inches 1n greatest diameter, 
while others are three or four 
times that size, some weigh- 
ing as much as 4 pounds. In 
form they vary from nearly 
spherical to long and narrow 
like a cucumber, straight or 
crooked. The most common 
varieties are usually from 2 

to 4 inches in length, more or less 

kidney-shaped, with the ‘‘nak’’ or 
stigmatic point more or less produced. 

In color they may be green, yellow, 

or red. In composition the difference 

is no less pronounced. In some the 
seed is large and the thin flesh be- 
“tween it and the skin consists almost 
entirely of fiber attached to the seed, 
while in others the seed is small, and 
in some so nearly aborted that it is 


Tue INTRODUCTION oF THE Manco 


easily cut with a knife. In the best 
varieties the fiber is almost entirely 
wanting and the entire fruit consists of 
a mass of .juicy, usually orange-colored 
pulp. 

The Anacardiacez, to which the 
mango belongs, include also the tur- 
pentine tree (Pistacia terebinthus), the 
original source of turpentine, and it 
seems not at all unlikely that the char- 
acteristic odor of the mango is in real- 
ity due to the presence of turpentine 
or some closely allied substance. Ex- 
udations of a transparent resinous sub- 
stance similar to that of the turpentine 
tree are frequently to be noticed in the 
mango. 

The mango ((Zangifera indica) is said 
by De Candolle to be native in South 
Asia or the Malay Archipelago, and re- 
cent authors report it as wild in the 
forests of Ceylon and the regions at the 
base of the Himalayas, especially to- 
ward the east, at an altitude of from 
1,000 to 2,000 feet. Its culture is very 
ancient, as shown by references in San- 
skrit mythology and ancient Hindu folk- 
lore. 

For so old and so useful a plant, its 
distribution was comparatively limited 
until historic times. To the west it had 
not passed the Red Sea, being unknown 
in Egypt, while to the east it had ap- 
parently not reached the islands of the 
Pacific. ‘Thespecies is not well adapted 
for distribution by natural agencies, and 
man has probably been chiefly responsi- 
ble for its dissemination. 

In the New World it seems to have 
been first introduced into Brazil, al- 
though it is not known at what date. 

The mango is now a common fruit 
throughout the Tropics of the world. 
It has been developed to the highest 
state of perfection in its home in India, 
where the number of well-marked va- 
rieties is enormous. Mr Maries, of 
Durbhungah, has collected over 500 
varieties, 100 of which he characterizes 
as good. ‘Thirty-four of these varieties 


$25 


he describes in Watt’s Dictionary of 
Economic Products of India. Ceylon 
is also famous for its mangoes. Both 
the east and the west coasts of Africa 
have several good varieties. In Aus- 
tralia the culture is fast increasing, and 
it bids fair to become one of the most 
popular fruits. One very fine variety 
is said to exist in the island of St Helena. 
The mango is the most highly prized 
fruit of Guam, where there is a fine 
seedling variety. Its cultivation in that 
island is, however, not a success, owing 
probably to the thin soil, which affords 
such a shallow footing that the hurri- 
canes uproot the trees in all exposed 
localities. In the Hawaiian Islands 
Mr William C. Stubbs* reports: ‘‘’The 
mango is receiving perhaps more atten- 
tion just now than any other fruit. As 
many as twelve or fifteen varieties have 
already been introduced. It is a de- 
licious fruit, and decidedly ornamental 
in any ground.’’ In the New World, 
Trinidad and Jamaica have the largest 
collections, although the drier regions 
of Central America and Mexico may be 
found to offer better seedling varieties. 

In spite of the many discouraging 
frosts that have visited Florida, planters 
of that state are actively engaged in 
propagating good varieties by budding, 
grafting, and inarching, and, if visited 
with no further misfortune, will in a 
few years produce considerable quan- 
tities of high-grade fruit. 

The mango will grow in a variety of 
conditions, and it seems to have little 
preference as to soil, the most important 
requirement being a deep soil that is 
welldrained. Astoclimate, it is much 
more exacting, and the fact that the 
tree may thrive well in a given locality 
and yet fail to produce fruit should be 
kept always in mind. The mango will 
be prolific only in regions subjected to a 


* Bull No. 95, Office of Experiment Stations, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Report on 
the Agricultural Resources and Capabilities of 
Hawaii, p. 40. 


Fron G. N. Collins 


Mango Fork (full size) 


From G. N. Collins, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


Mango Fruit, showing Method of Peeling (natural size) 


considerable dry season. On the moist north side of Porto 
Rico the trees grow luxuriantly, but they are not nearly 
so prolific, nor is the fruit of such good quality, as on the 
dry south side, and in the very dry region about Yauco 
and at Cabo Rojo the fruit seemed at its best, while its 
abundance was attested by the fact that fine fruit was 
selling as lowas 12 foracent. In Guatemala and Mexico 
the mango was found at its best only in regions where 
severe dry seasons prevailed. 

Under favorable conditions the mango is very prolific. 
The tree of which a branch is shown on page 323 was 
estimated to have in the neighborhood of 5,000 fruits at 
the time the photograph was taken, and trees quite as 
prolific were seen near Cabo Rojo, Porto Rico ; while trees 
in southern Florida before the freeze of 1886 were esti- 
mated to bear as high as 10,000 mangoes. From this it 
will be seen that with 25 to 100 trees per acre enormous 
quantities of mangoes can be produced on very small 
tracts of land, provided the right climatic conditions exist. 

The method of peeling a stringy mango is shown on 
this page. A cut is made around either end of the fruit 
and these are then connected along one side, the central 
strip being peeled off in one piece. The skin remaining 
on the ends of the fruit affords a means of holding it with- 
out the fingers coming in contact with the juicy flesh. If 
in addition a sharp-pointed fork is at hand, this can be firmly 


RAINFALL AND THE LEVEL oF Lake Eris 


fixed in the seed and the skin at the 
ends removed, thus saving the sweetest 
part of the fruit. ‘he illustration on 
page 326 shows a special mango fork 
secured in’ Mexico by Dr J. N. Rose. 
The long slender tine in the center easily 
penetrates the seed, and the shorter 
outer tines need only to touch the seed 
to prevent it from turning. 

The best varieties of mango have 
hardly any fiber and the pulp is sliced 
with a knife, or sometimes is so soft 
that it is eaten with a spoon. 

Porto Rico seems very well adapted 
to the production of mangoes and, as the 
plant is strictly tropical and very sus- 
ceptible to cold, would seem to have a 
decided advantage over Florida, where 
good varieties are already successfully 


327 


grown, but where, except in the extreme 
southern part, the danger of injury from 
cold is very great. A really high-grade 
mango is unknown in Porto Rico, and 
the first steps toward making their ex- 
portation profitable is the introduction 
from the other islands, or from Florida, 
Mexico, or the East Indies, of grafted 
stock of the best varieties. 

The season of ripe mangoes in Porto 
Rico is from May to August. By se- 
lecting proper varieties this might be 
prolonged, since in some parts of India 
it extends over a period of six months. 
This would be a great advantage in ship- 
ping the fruit to temperate regions, as 
at present the season coincides with the 
season of temperate fruits, which places 
the mango at a decided disadvantage. 


-RAINFALL AND THE LEVEL OF LAKE ERIE 


ANY people think that the 
M rainfall, although differently 
distributed through the year, 
averages about the same one year as 
another, or if there is a deficiency one 
year, it will be made upthe next. With 
this erroneous notion in mind, those 
concerned with navigation on the Great 
Lakes have naturally looked for some 
other explanation of changing water 
levels, for from 1888-1901 they witnessed 
a period of low water so long it seemed 
unreasonable to expect it ever to attain 
its former level. However, a compari- 
son of the level of Lake Erie, as shown 
by the gage at Cleveland, with the rec- 
ord of rainfall along the Great Lakes 
shows a complete correspondence. 

The high water in Lake Erie in 1902 
and the heavy rainfall of that year are 
fresh in the minds of those who live 
near it. 

The Weather Bureau established a 
number of stations on the Great Lakes 
in 1870. The first marked deviation 
from normal level in Lake Erie after this 


was in 1872, when the water was lower 
than for many years before or after. 
The rainfall that year was below the 
normal at every station on the Great 
Lakes. (I have taken no account of 
stations on Lake Ontario.) In 1876 
the water was higher than for many 
years before and higher than any year 
since. The rainfall was above normal 
at all stations except Marquette, where 
it was nearly an inch below. At Mil- 
waukee the excess was 18.28 inches; 
at Grand Haven, 11.52; at Detroit, 
8.07. 

In 1878 the lake was considerably 
higher than the preceding or following 
year. ‘The rainfall was a little below 
normal at Duluth and Grand Haven, 
but above at all other stations, being 
60.24 inches at Buffalo, where the nor- 
mal is only 38.04, and 53.51 at Cleve- 
land, where the normal is 36.29. 

In 1882 the lake was higher on an 
average than in any other year since 
1876. The rainfall was below normal 
at Buffalo, Detroit, and Milwaukee, but 


328 


above normal at the ten other stations, 
the excess at most of them being greater 
than the deficiency at any of these three. 

In 1890 the water was higher than in 
the years immediately preceding or fol- 
lowing. ‘The rainfall was not far from 
normal on the upper lakes, but above 
normal at all Lake Erie stations. 

In 1895 the water was the lowest for 
half a century, and the rainfall on the 
Great Lakes probably the least, cer- 
tainly the least recorded at the Weather 
Bureau stations since their establish- 
ment. 

These include all the years that differ 
in any marked degree from those that 
precede and follow. 

If we consider parts of years we find 
also a close agreement between rainfall 
and lake level. Examination of the 
monthly record of lake level at Cleve- 
land led me to think the rainfall at the 
different stations must have been below 
normal for the first half of 1888 and the 
last three months of 1887. On consult- 
ing the record I founditso. To exactly 
account for the stage of the water dur- 
ing brief periods, of course several 
things must be considered—surplus or 
deficiency in the different lakes at the 
beginning of the period, time required 
for water to flow from the upper lakes, 
evaporation, melting of snow on the 
watershed, whether ground is frozen, 
whether rain falls gradually or so fast 
that a larger portion passes quickly into 
the streams. 

Most of the time since 1887 Lake Erie 
has been lower than for many years 
before. ‘The rainfall has also been less, 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


as the table shows. If any one could 
tell us when this dry cycle will give 
place to a wet one, the information 
would be highly appreciated. Perhaps 
the wet one has already begun. Atany 
rate, those concerned need not fear any 
appreciable lowering of Lake Erie be- 
low its level in the past decade from any 
other cause than drouth. I believe that 
people now at Cleveland, Toledo, Detroit, 
Milwaukee, and Chicago will live to see 
the water higher than their fathers ever 
saw it. ‘The same cannot be said of 
places on Lake Huron or the northern 
part of Lakes Superior and Michigan, 
for the slow tilting of the earth’s crust 
is such as gradually to lower the water 
in those regions. : 


MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL ON THE 
GREAT LAKES 
Meanin 
Year | inches | Mean eee 
Station. estab- | to De- | since 5 
lished.| cember | 1887. sen 
31,1887 Ye 

Dulutheeeseee 1870 32.8 27.0 5.8 
Marquette....| 1871 32.3 32.4 | —Oo.1 
Chicago...... 1870 | 36.7 30.5 6.2 
Milwaukee....| 1870 33.2 28.5 4.7 
Grand Haven.) 1871 38.9 30.4 8.5 
Alpena....... 1872 37-9 29.7 8.2 
Port Huron...| 1874 33.5 29.3 4.2 
Detroitsee eee: 1870 | 33.6 30.7 2.9 
Toledo........| 1870] 32.7 28.0 4.7 
Sandusky.... 1877 37.5 31.5 6.0 
Cleveland.....| 1870] 374 33.1 4.3 
Sasso ccc0000s 1873 43-2 35.2 8.0 
Buffalo.. .... 1870 38.1 36.8 Te) 


EK. L. MosELeby. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


THE RAILROADS AND FORESTRY 


HE Bureau of Forestry has con- 
tinued this year ona far larger 
scale the experiments in timber season- 
ing and preservation for the railroads 


which it began last year under Dr Her- 
mann von Schrenk. ‘This work will be 
done for the New York Central, the 
Erie, the Baltimore and Ohio, and the 
Pennsylvania railroads in the East, and 
for the Illinois Central, the Santa Fé, the 


GeocraPHic Nores 


St Louis and San Francisco, the Mis- 
souri, Kansas and Texas, the Northern 
Pacific, and the Burlington in the South 
and West. - 

The scarcity of valuable timbers is 
felt by no class of consumers more 
keenly than by the railroads, which 
use every year 110,000,000 ties merely 
to renew those worn out and decayed. 
The price of timbers has risen in some 
instances to a figure which makes their 
use prohibitive ; in other cases the sup- 
ply is so nearly exhausted that the roads 
have been compelled to look about for 
new timbers. 

The Bureau of Forestry has been 
called on to assist in solving the diffi- 
culty, and has come forward with the 
very practical and simple suggestion 
that the railroads, instead of continuing 
to use expensive, high-grade timbers 
for such a low-grade purpose as that 
of railroad ties, shall use the cheaper 
woods. For example, to the complaint 
of the New York Central that it finds 
it more and more difficult to secure 
longleaf pine ties from Georgia at the 
price it can afford to pay, the Bureau 
suggests that the road use the beech, 
maple, and birch of the Adirondacks. 
The complaint that the timbers rot very 
quickly when laid in the ground is an- 
swered by the suggestion that they 
should be seasoned and preserved, just 
as beech is seasoned and preserved in 
France. The Great Eastern Railroad 
of France has succeeded in making 
beech ties last 35 years by impregnating 
them with tar oils. ‘The unseasoned 
longleaf pine ties used by the New York 
Central last only five years; and the 
beech, if laid green, without seasoning 
or preserving, would in many cases 
last no more than three years. The 
substance of the proposal which the 
Bureau has made to the railroads, and 
which the railroads have thought so 
well of as to adopt, is that experiments 
be made to determine whether cheaper 
timbers may be treated with preserva- 


329 


tives at a cost so low and be made to 
last such a long time that it will pay 
to substitute them for the more expen- 
sive timbers now employed. 

The railroads have thought so well of 
these ideas that they will not only carry 
on under the Bureau’s direction thé nec- 
essary experiments in seasoning and pre- 
serving, but have engaged the Bureau’s 
help in learning where cheap timbers for 
ties may be obtained. In other words, 
the railroads have decided that if they 
can be convinced that it will pay to sea- 
son and preserve cheap timbers for ties, 
they will acquire large areas of timber 
lands on which they will grow their own 
trees, cut their own ties, and thus be 
assured of a steady supply. This means 
that some of the great railroads of the 
country are in a fair way to practice for- 
estry on a very large scale, and to em- 
ploy a great many foresters. 

Work of a similar nature to the rail- 
road experiments is being carried on for 
the American Telephone and Telegraph 
Company, which used last year 150,000 
telephone poles and 3,000,000 feet of tim- 
ber in cross-arms. Seasoning experi- 
ments are being conducted on chestnut 
telephone poles near Harrisburg, Pa., 
and on cedar poles near Wilmington, 
N.C. 

Important and valuable as this work 
is to the railroad and telegraph compa- 
nies, it is of far greater importance and 
value to the country at large. The use 
of cheaper timbers for railroad ties is in 
several ways an economic saving; it re- 
lieves the high-grade timbers of a part 
of the heavy demand that is being made 
upon them, opens a market for timbers 
for which there is now little sale, and 
affords splendid opportunities for con- 
servative management of timber lands. 
The work is being prosecuted accord- 
ing to the regular cooperative system of 
the Bureau, by which the field and trav- 
eling expenses of the Bureau’s agents 
are paid by those for whom the work is 
done. 


BRO Tue Nationa, Grocrapuic MacaZzine 


NewYork, October (7, 1902. 


Conmanser Robert &. Peary, WON. 
Washing tow, D.C., 


Dear Six:- 


The Peary Arctic Chub acknowledges your 
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Aloouring You of our appreciation and regard, we 
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SWathar or Shape Sap Nat ae 
: tea armiettty ae po 


Nae 


| Principal of ae isee Wash 
ae ieee n, D.C, 


Vor. XIV, No. 9 


a 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGRAIPIEOIC 
MAGAZINIE, 


SEPTEMBER, 1903 


ia 


mae UNITED STATES-HER MINERAL 
RESOURCES * 


By C. KircunHorr, Epiror THe [Ron AGE 


HEN I wasa boy I was taught 
that in this great country, as 
in fact in any land, an assured 


future lay with him who identified him- 
self as closely as possible with the de- 
velopment of its natural resources; that 
the producer of the primary articles of 
necessity, the tiller of the soil, and the 
miner must under all circumstances find 
an outlet for their energies and a re- 
ward for their special skill and knowl- 
edge. To one born in the sight of the 
Golden Gate, soon after the wonder- 
ful gold discoveries in California, the 
future held out vast possibilities to every 
searcher for treasure; yet the wildest 
dreams of the gold-seekers of that day 
have been outdone by the subsequent 
discoveries of our mineral wealth, al- 
though now the yellow metal is occupy- 
ing a minor place when compared with 
the useful minerals. 

It may be stated as a general propo- 
sition that to a civilized community the 
possession of mineral wealth is impor- 
tant almost in the inverse order of the 
unit value of the individual mineral. 
Cheapest and yet most important of all 


is coal and fuel, next iron, the baser 
metals, the precious metals, and finally 
the precious stones. Without the first 
named no great industrial expansion is 
possible, while the last named, however 
welcome, do not through their absence 
hamper growth. 

It is not possible to speak with pre- 
cision as to the extent of the mineral 
resources of any country, because new 
discoveries are made from time to time 
even in Hurope, where exploration has 
extended over many centuries. It iscer- 
tainly not possible in our own land, where 
much territory is still covered with dense 
forests and swamps and whole mountain 
ranges have been untrod. Under the 
circumstances, comparisons are unsafe, 
but with such qualifications it is stating 
a fact that the United States has been 
blessed with almost unrivaled resources. 

The geographical distribution of our 
mineral resources could be fairly well 
shown in maps and charts, so far as 
exploration and development have re- 
vealed them. We might in that way 
show our assets, territorially distrib- 
uted, but we would create a very erro- 


*An address before the National Geographic Society, March 4, 1903. 


3/32 


neous opinion of their real value. With 
the most important minerals the eco- 
nomic value of a deposit is dependent 
upon many other considerations besides 
those of mere size and extent. Con- 
spicuous among these are accessibility 
to markets, the means of transportation, 
natural or artificial, the existence of a 
supply of labor and the character of that 
labor, climate, the character of the com- 
munity, its laws, etc. "These in their 
shifting influence find expression in the 
actual product, and that is a better meas- 
ure of relative importance than mere 
location and extent. 

The latter, designated on maps by 
coloring, is a poor guide, since rela- 
tively unimportant deposits may cover a 
very extended territory. Coal measures 
may underlie many thousands of square 
miles, yet the seams which they enclose 
may not be numerous nor thick nor pos- 
sess a coal of satisfactory quality. A 
field smallin area, at some distant place, 
may be thescene of enormous operations, 
while the greater basin may hardly be 
able to supply local requirements. The 
anthracite coal regions, as to area, con- 
stitute only an exceedingly small portion 
of the known coal fields of the United 
States, yet their importance overshadows 
any other industrial district. 

Useful minerals are found in deposits 
which may in general be classified, for 
the purpose of estimating them as 
assets, into two groups. First are those 
which are beds constituting one of a 
series of strata. "They are usually per- 
sistent and fairly regular over large 
areas like the coal seams, and therefore 
permit of some estimate of their con- 
tents. Second are those whose origin 
is due to local circumstances, and these 
include the fissure veins. They are 
usually irregular, and it is in most cases 
entirely impossible to arrive at any con- 
clusion of their extent and value with- 
out most elaborate underground ex- 
ploration or actual mining operations. 
It is therefore quite impossible to sub- 


Tue Natrona, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


mit more than very vague data relative 
to the magnitude of the mineral wealth 
of any country. Ina very rough way 
we may do so, of course, so far as coal 
is concerned. How rough that is will 
be readily understood when the state- 
ment is made that out of an estimated 
coal area of about 4,650,000 square 
miles in the world, China is credited 
With 4,000,000 square miles. Our own 
country is put down at about 280,000 
square miles, and this compares with 
11,900 square miles for Great Britain, 
1,770 square miles for Germany, 2,086 
square miles for France, and 510 square 
miles for Belgium. Considering the 
enormous tonnage which the European 
countries named are furnishing from 
their relative restricted territory, OUT 
possible reserves look huge. Of course 
areas are not a true measure of value or 
importance. Thus our Pennsylvania 
anthracite fields embrace a territory of 
only 468 square miles, and yet outdo in 
value probably any coal area of like 
extent anywhere in the world. 

We must therefore leave to the imagi- 
nation the pleasure of dealing with 
the magnitude of our mineral wealth. 
All we do know is that it is very great, 
not alone in its magnitude but also in 
its variety. 

There is hardly a state or territory in 
the Union which does not possess and is 
not utilizing mineral property, particu- 
larly when we include clays and stone 
and mineral springs. Maine has her 
granite and stone; Vermont her mar- 
bles, granite, and copper ; Connecticut 
her iron ore ; Massachusetts her granite, 
pyrites, and iron ore; New York, salt, 
stone, petroleum, natural gas, clays, 
cement, gypsum, graphite, and iron ore ; 
New Jersey, clays, marls, zinc, and iron 
ore; Pennsylvania, petroleum, coal, iron 
ore, natural gas, cement, rock, and clays; 
Maryland, ironore; Virginia, coal, iron 
ore, zinc ore, pyrites, and copper ore ; 
North Carolina, gold, stone, corundum, 
mica, copper, and iron ; South Carolina 


Tue Unitrep Strares: Her Minerat Resources 


and Florida, their phosphates ; Tennes- 
see, coal, copper, iron ore, and phosphate 
rock; Alabama, coal andiron ore; Louis- 
jana, sulphur and salt; Kentucky has 
coal, iron, zinc, and lead; West Virginia, 
petroleum, natural gas, coal, and salt ; 
Texas, petroleum, coal, iron ore, quick- 
silver, and silver; Arkansas, zinc, man- 
ganese, bauxite, whetstone, and coal; 
Missouri, lead, zinc, iron ore, and clays ; 
Ohio has coal, petroleum, natural gas, 
clays, grindstones, salt, and iron ore; 
Michigan, copper, iron ore, coal, cement, 
grindstones, clay, limestone, and salt; 
Illinois, coal ; Indiana, natural gas, coal, 
petroleum, whetstones, and clays ; Wis- 
consin, iron ore, lead, and zinc; Iowa, 
claysand lead; Kansas, lead, zinc, coal, 
natural gas, salt, and gypsum ; Indian 
Territcry, coal; South Dakota, gold, 
copper, and leadi; Wyoming, petroleum, 
coal, copper, salt, and iron ore; Colo- 
rado, gold, silver, lead, copper, petro- 
leum, coal, andiron ; Utah, gold, silver, 
lead, coal, iron, and sulphur ; Montana, 
copper, silver, gold, and sapphires; 
Idaho, lead, gold, and silver ; Oregon, 
gold, copper, and silver; Washington, 
coal, iron ore, lead, and silver ; Arizona 
is famous for copper, silver, and gold; 
New Mexico for coal, iron ore, copper, 
and silver; Nevada for silver, gold, 
and copper, and California for gold, 
copper, quicksilver, petroleum, borax, 
asphaltum, magnesite, and stone. 

As the pioneers penetrated into our 
country they caught some glimpses of 
these treasures. The Jesuit fathers, in 
the reports of their journeys in 1659 and 
1660, mention the copper of Lake Su- 
perior, and Le Sueur, in his explora- 
tions of the Mississippi at the commence- 
ment of the eighteenth century, noticed 
the lead deposits of that region. Cop- 
per was mined in Connecticut and in 
New Jersey, and iron manufacture be- 
gan in New England and in Virginia at 
about that time, but it was not until the 
end of the eighteenth century that iron, 
lead, and copper mining were carried 


S13)3 


on on a fairly comprehensive scale. 
Coal was mined in the vicinity of Rich- 
mond from 1770 to 1780. In 1820 the 
first cargo of anthracite reached Phila- 
delphia, while in 1833 and 1834 Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
and Georgia were in the zenith of a gold- 
mining boom which resulted in an an- 
nual product of about $600,000. The 
year 1844 saw the opening of the Lake 
Superior copper region, and then in 
1848 came the famous California gold 
excitement, followed by gold mining in 
Oregon in 1852, in Arizona in 1858, in 
Colorado in 1859, in Idaho and Montana 
in 1860. Iron mining on Lake Superior 
began in 1856. In 1859 came the dis- 
covery of the Comstock lode, which 
created an enormous activity in silver 
mining and led to the opening of the 
Unionville, Kelso Run, Belmont, White 
Pine, Eureka, Esmeralda, and Pioche 
districts in Nevada, the Owyhee in 
Idaho, the Cottonwood and Bingham 
in Utah, and the silver districts of Col- 
orado. ‘The year 1860 brought the dis- 
covery of petroleum in Pennsylvania, 
to be followed many years later by the 
utilization of natural gas. 

The development of the copper mines 
of Arizona began seriously in 1880 and 
1881 with the opening of the Bisbee, 
Globe, and Clifton districts, to which 
later on the United Verde was added. 
Butte rushed into prominence at about 
the same time. Later in the seventies 
Leadville began to pour forth its mass 
of argentiferous lead. 

It may be stated in a general way that 
enterprise did not seriously turn to the 
mining industry in this country until 
the second half of the last century, and 
that its greatest achievement has been 
crowded into the last 30 years. I donot 
propose to weary you with an endless 
array of figures. Suffice it to say that 
the value of the mineral product of 
the United States had risen to about 
$370,000,000 in 1880, reached $620,- 
000,000 in 1890, and, according to the 


3 Sa 


statistics collected by Dr David T. Day, 
of the United States Geological Survey, 
exceeded $1,000,000,0o00 in 1g01. ‘This 
includes $350,000,000 for coal, $242,- 
000,000 for pig iron, $87,000,000 for 
copper, $78,000,000 for gold, $66,000, - 
ooo for petroleum, $55,000,000 for 
stone, $33,000,000, commercial value, 
for silver, $27,000,000 for natural gas, 
and $23,000,000 for lead. 

We stand first as producers of coal, 
our output in r901 having been 263,- 
000,000 long tons, Great Britain follow- 
ing with 220,000,000 tons,and Germany 
with 153,000,000 tons, our percentage 
of the world’s total being about 31 per 
cent. In petroleum we have been racing 
with Russia, occasionally first and some- 
times second. In 1901 we furnished a 
little over 69,000,000 barrels to the 
world’s total of 165,000,000 barrels, our 
percentage being 41.9 per cent as com- 
pared with Russia’s 41.5 per cent. 

In the manufacture of pig iron we 
have now reached the point that our 
production is greater than that of our 
largest rivals, Great Britain and Ger- 
many, put together, with Belgium 
thrown in. We manufactured in 1902 
fully 4o per cent of the world’s total. 

The gold production of the world was 
about $265,000,000 in 1901, to which we 
contributed $80,000,000 and Australasia 
$77,000,000. Of course, when the Rand 
resumes its full production and again 
starts on its natural increase, we shall 
probably have to yield first place to it. 

The world’s production of silver has 
a commercial value of about $103,- 
000,000. Here again we occupy the 
first rank, with Mexico as a close sec- 
ond. 

The supremacy in the copper mining 
industry is undoubtedly ours for many 
years to come. In 1901 we produced 
over 52 per cent of the total of the 
world’s yield of 512,000 tons. In that 
year, with a product of 269,000 tons, 
we came close to the entire world’s out- 
put in 1890, when it was 273,000 tons. 


Tue Nationa, GrocrRAPHic MaGAZINE 


We stand second in zinc, following 
Germany. Our output of that metal in 
I9OI Was 125,000 tons out of a total of 
the world of 501,000 tons, or over 25 
per cent. 

These figures, enormous as they are, 
do not really reflect adequately the great 
importance of our mining, since it lies 
at the foundation of the manufacturing 
industries of this country and is the 
basis of its industrial greatness, backed 
as it is with an equally lavish supply of 
raw materials from the forest and the 
farm. Mining and rail transportation 
have reciprocally aided one another, 
and in turn have contributed powerfully 
to the wellbeing of the farmer and the 
lumberman. : 

As in other realms of material prog- 
ress, the United States has outstripped 
all other civilized countries in the de- 
velopment of its mining and metallur- 
gical industries. 

Brief though the period be during 
which we have been actively mining, 
we have witnessed the exhaustion of 
famous great deposits and the decline 
of entire camps and districts. This is 
apt to occur most rapidly in the case of 
placers, conspicuous among which are 
the auriferous sands and gravels in 
which the precious metal has been con- 
centrated by the washing action of 
streams. California’s enormous gold 
production of the early days fell off 
rapidly after the first decade of work- 
ing. The exhaustion of the silver-gold 
bonanzas of the Comstock lode, the 
rapid collapse of the mining of silver- 
lead ores of the Eureka district in 
Nevada, the practical cessation of work- - 
ing of once exceedingly productive 
quicksilver mines of California, are a 
few instances which could be multiplied. 
Yet thus far we have again and again 
witnessed the rapid rush into promi- 
nence of new districts. Thus Cripple 
Creek in Colorado recorded its first 
shipment of gold in 1891, the amount 
being estimated at $2,000. Two years 


Tue Unirep Srares: Her MInerRAL Resources 335 


later it was $2,000,000, in 1897 it had 
crossed the $10,000,000 mark, and in 
1900 had risen to $18,000,000. Butte, 
in Montana, was a silver camp of some 
importance 20 years ago, when copper 
was discovered and the district sud- 
denly loomed up with exports by the 
ship cargo of 30 per cent ores to the 
astounded smelters of Swansea, Wales. 
When Leadville’s great reserves of 
oxidized silver-lead ores began to show 
signs of exhaustion, the Coeur d’ Alene 
County, in Idaho, rose to more than fill 
the gap. 

Again and again we have faced the 
possibility that our petroleum supply 
would ultimately fail us; yet as the 
derricks fell into ruins in one field they 
rose like magic in others, the most 
startling recent instance being the 
opening of the California and Texas 
fields. 

Some uneasiness has been felt as to 
the future of the Lake iron ore supply. 
The Marquette district was in full de- 
velopment when the Menominee was 
opened out. Then came in rapid suc- 
cession the Gogebic and the Vermilion 
ranges, and finally, as the climax of all, 
the Mesaba range. Again and again 
the prediction was made that the old 
Marquette range would show evidences 
of exhaustion, and yet year after year 
new mines have taken the place of old 
ones. New reserves are being opened 
up in all the districts until this genera- 
tion may well dismiss any fears of future 
supplies, even taking into consideration 
that the demands are rapidly increasing 
year after year. 

As for our resources of coal, the most 
important of our minerals, we are not 
likely to have a Coal Exhaustion Com- 
mission, like that of our British friends, 
for centuries to come. 

Our record of feverish activity is one of 
which we have every reason to be proud, 
but it must be acknowledged that it 
has been accompanied by serious abuses. 
In the rush to get rich we have delib- 


erately followed the principle that it 
pays to waste. Within certain limits 
that may be economically justifiable. 
In a new country, without adequate 
transportation facilities, high labor, and 
difficult surroundings, it is possible only 
to select the best and the richest, but 
unfortunately in mining that process of 
selection in most cases practically ren- 
ders unavailable for the future that 
which has been rejected. Much of it 
is forever lost to the world, and what 
can be saved at a later date can be re- 
covered only at a greatly increased cost. 
In the early days of our mining we 
have been unskillful, and even today 
we are robbing nature’s storehouses of 
treasure, often destroying more than 
we utilize. At one time, not so many 
years since, barely one-third of the an- 
thracite coal in our beds finally reached 
the consumer. The other two-thirds 
were lost in mining and in preparation 
for market. 

It is characteristic of a great many of 
the mineral deposits that the mass of the 
ore, particularly with growing depth, 
is low in grade, the useful mineral be- 
ing disseminated in relatively large 
quantities of barren rock. Very often 
the rich ore occurs only in streaks and 
pockets, which constitute a minor per- 
centage in the total amount of valuable 
material. In hunting for them the 
poorer material is rejected, although 
it may be close to the border line of 
profitable extraction. With improved 
economic conditions there is greater 
opportunity, and with greater skill and a 
broader comprehension there is a grow- 
ing tendency among managers to rely 
more and more upon a moderate return 
on the large bodies of poor ore, accept- 
ing the occasional bonanza as a welcome 
addition torevenue. ‘The reckless hunt 
for rich streaks is giving way to sys- 
tematic utilization of a maximum of 
the deposits. It may not be as merry 
and exciting a life, but it 1s certainly a 
longer one and happier one. ‘There has 


330 


been a great improvement in this direc- 
tionin this country. It should bestated, 
however, that we can never hope to 
utilize the entire contents of a deposit. 
Still, there can be no doubt that we 
have paid dearly in wasted resources 
for the achievements of opening them 
up so rapidly. 

We have no particular grounds for 
mere pride of possession in our mag- 
nificent resources. Our glory, from a 
national point of view, should be com- 
pleteness of utilization, and that has at 
times suggested the nationalization of 
our mineral industry with the object of 
checking the abuses referred to. It 
may be doubted whether our practical 
good sense will ever allow that question 
to come to the front. ‘The nation as 
such has only control now of those 
mineral resources which lie dormant in 
the national domain. In order to en- 
courage their development, ownership 
is surrendered under easy conditions to 
the discoverer. That policy has un- 
questionably fostered enterprise in the 
past, but it is an open question whether 
the time is not approaching when the 
nation at large must assume the attitude 
of some state governments and of all 
private owners of mineral lands. These 
demand a royalty which may become an 
important source of revenue, and they 
generally provide, what is more im- 
portant to the nation, that the mine 
shall be operated in a workmanlike 
manner. ‘The present generation has 
responsibilities to future generations. 
In their behalf it has the right and the 
duty to demand that the nation’s gifts 
be not wantonly destroyed ; that every 
means which engineering skill suggests 
be exhausted; that every reasonable 
precaution be taken to preserve from 
destruction useful mineral which, while 
not profitably available now, may be- 
come highly precious to future genera- 
tions. 

Nor should title to mineral property 
on the public domain be given without 


Tue Nationa, GeocraepHic MaGaZINE 


some provision for its surrender as the 
penalty for long continued idleness. It 
should revert to the nation when after 
reasonable opportunity the discoverer is 
either unable or unwilling to utilize 
nature’s bounty. 

The United States has been exceed- 
ingly generous in throwing open its 
mineral resources. It has been a wise 
policy which the results on the whole 
have thoroughly justified. But condi- 
tions have changed greatly. The open- 
ing up of our mineral resources has 
ceased to be the hazardous undertaking 
it once was. Their utilization has be- 
come an undertaking in which engi- 
neering skill can more readily guarantee 
results. The splendid work of our 
U. S. Geological Survey has brushed 
away many uncertainties. The devel- 
opment of our great railway systems has 
lessened costs, and cheaper and more 
confident capital has become a willing 
handmaiden to enterprise. The time is 
therefore approaching, if it is not now 
at hand, when the nation is justified in 
imposing conditions not hitherto war- 
ranted. Conspicuous among _ these 
should be a rigid enforcement of the 
obligation to put a stop to wanton 
waste. 

In the last few years a good deal of 
alarm has been felt that very dangerous 
monopolies may be created through the 
control of our mineral resources by 
powerful consolidations of capital. At 
the first blush, in studying the magni- 
tude of those resources, we may feel in- 
clined to dismiss the danger as remote. 
It assumes a somewhat different aspect, 
however, when we begin to differentiate. 
The conditions affecting the industrial 
utilization of mineral property vary 
greatly, and a closer study reveals the 
fact that a relatively small number of 
the deposits, through favoring circum- 
stances, give their possessors special 
advantages. The deposits may be ex- 
ceptionally rich or extensive, particu- 
larly pure, or may be so located with 


Tue Unirep States: Her Mrnerat Resources 337 


reference to the markets that they are 
capable of yielding an adequate supply 
at a cost far below others. ‘These ad- 
vantages may represent enormous sums, 
and can therefore be capitalized corre- 
spondingly. Unless those who control 
them extort undue returns, measured by 
earning capacity, the owners of the other 
less favorably located deposits cannot 
compete and live. Of course, the risk 
is always run by those who secure con- 
trol of the best of the mines that new 
deposits as valuable may be discovered 
elsewhere, just as those who utilize 
monopolies based upon patents take the 
chance that inventive genius, stimulated 
by opportunity, made exceptionally arti- 
ficial, find means to dispute exclusive 
possession. ‘There may be iron ore de- 
posits as rich and as great as any on the 
Lake Superior ranges in the Rocky 
Mountain region, yet for a generation to 
come they might as well be non-existent, 
so far as the controlling position of the 
United States Steel Corporation is con- 
eerned. An enormous power for good 
or for evil may be wielded by groups of 
capitalists who control the commercially 
available mineral resources, though they 
constitute only a small fraction of the 
total assets of mineral wealth of the 
country. ‘The fact that in most cases 
the earning capacity of these consolida- 
tions has been rated exceedingly high 
furnishes a premium on the develop- 
ment of hitherto neglected deposits, and 
thus constitutes the greatest source of 
danger to the stability of many of these 
giant undertakings. What. is perhaps 
to be most deplored is that these organi- 
zations, on their present basis, impose 
upon the industries dependent upon 
them a burden of fixed charges which 
must handicap this country in its strug- 
gle for an increasing share in the world’s 
markets. 

While the record of the achievements 
in mining, gwantitively, has been extra- 
ordinary in this country during the past 
fifty years, we may look back with even 


greater satisfaction upon what has been 
accomplished gwalitively, if we may so 
term it. Itcannot be stated in an array 
of figures, but constitutes even a greater 
glory to the captains of industry and 
the engineers and inventors who deserve 
the credit for it. It isexpressed in the 
more complete utilization of the natural 
resources, as in the increase in the total 
extraction of the contents of a coal bed. 
It is in evidence in the capacity to util- 
ize bodies of ores lower and lower in 
grade. It is proven by ability to pro- 
duce from rebellious or impure ores 
metals nearly chemically pure and com- 
mercially available for a wider and wider 
range of consumption. It is measured 
by an expansion of markets which may 
be due to the fact that technical prog- 
ress has proceeded more rapidly in our 
country than in others. 

While it is true that in these early 
days our miners and smelters rose to 
the occasion when they were called 
upon to meet special conditions, the 
general fact is apparent from a study of 
our development that generally we first 
copied and then adapted the methods 
approved by experience in Europe. 
There were some very notable excep- 
tions. We were forced to and did cre- 
ate hydraulic mining to collect the gold 
from alluvial deposits. We developed 
the preparation of anthracite for the 
market. We had nothing to guide us 
in the handling of the native copper 
rock of Lake Superior. The Washoe 
process was worked out to treat the 
silver ores of the Comstock lode. ‘There 
were no precedents for methods in the 
petroleum industries, and we had to 
learn by ourselves how to collect, dis- 
tribute, and utilize natural gas. We 
taught the world how to use the steam 
shovel in mining. We have pushed 
the development of the rock drill in 
mining and quarrying, and in more re- 
cent years have been in advance of all 
countries in the employment of modern 
coal-cutting machinery. Still it is a 


338 


fact that Cornish, Welsh, and English 
miners long controlled the working out 
of our mining methods, and that Ger- 
man and English metallurgists guided 
our first steps in utilizing our more 
complex silver, lead, and copper ores. 

One of the most brilliant reports on 
the state of the art ever written, that of 
the late Abram S. Hewitt on the Paris 
Exposition of 1867, is a confession of 
superiority of European methods in iron 
manufacture, which is almost staggering 
to one who reads it in the light of the 
present day. I cannot help feeling that 
the recognition of our indebtedness to 
European practice in the earlier days 
should be insisted upon, since it is be- 
coming altogether too common to assume 
that we are the chosen people so far as 
the mechanic arts are concerned. ‘That 
feeling is so often encountered that the 
fear of the danger of overconfidence is 
naturally aroused. 

A striking fact is the growing interde- 
pendence of the various branches of the 
mechanic arts as contrasted with the 
conditions prevailing 25 yearsago. The 
one relies upon the other, not alone for 
its products, but is aided, too, by sug- 
gestions and support. ‘The metallur- 
gist’s progress is accelerated by the 
mechanical engineer, and the latter 
looks to the former for increasingly 
strong and reliable materials. ‘The elec- 
trician has greatly widened the capacity 
for improving methods on the part of the 
copper producer, and in turn is under a 
debt to the copper miner, and the 
achievements of the rail-maker are re- 
turned in kind by the railroad builder, 
who has taught both much of value in 
transporting materials. ‘Thus all are 
shoulder to shoulder in the march of 
progress, mutually helpful and united— 
all powerful. 

To a constantly increasing degree 
pure science, primarily in search of the 
truth for its own sake, sheds its search- 
light along the path, and has become a 
closer and more valued ally year by 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MaGaZINneE 


year. The majority of active workers 
looked askance at this meddler, pre- 
ferring to allow their own fancy full 
sway whenever they stopped to seek for 
causes or explanations. Practical men 
may sometimes become impatient when 
the laborious and apparently hypercrit- 
ical methods of the scientist do not more 
promptly clear an obscure point or fur- 
nish him with a suggestion for success- 
ful new lines of work, but the day has 
long passed when research was treated 
with grudging respect, if not with open 
hostility. No one is now readier to 
acknowledge his indebtedness to the 
chemist or the physicist than the man- 
ager or the practicing engineer. The 
fear is disappearing of impracticable 
science on the one hand and of unscien- 
tific practice on the other. 

The mining industry has suffered and, 
unfortunately, will suffer, particularly 
in its relation to labor, from one appar- 
ently trifling circumstance, and that is 
the impression which a visit to under- 
ground operations makes upon the aver- 
age layman. To be dropped suddenly 
into the dark depths with only a flick- 
ering candle to guide the uncertain 
steps, appalled by the dead silence or 
alarmed by strange noises, the rumble 
of the distant car, the reverberation of 
a shot far away, the rushing of unseen 
streams of water—the visitor is im- 
pressed with a sense of insecurity and 
danger. ‘The bright sunlight has never 
seemed sweeter to him than upon his 
return to the surface, and if he happens 
to have access to the columns of the 
press he describes in lurid language the 
awful experience which incidentally 
convinces him that he is braver than he 
gave himself credit for in his innermost 
heart. Miningin the popular mind be- 
comes one of the most hazardous of call- 
ings when, as a matter of fact, there are 
many others above ground which in- 
volve greater risks. With some excep- 
tions, of course, the conditions which 
surround the work of the miner are 


ExpepITion Inro Texas, 1675 


rather favorable. He is not exposed to 
the rigors of the elements, and partic- 
ularly during the last few decades the 
hygienic conditions have been brought 
to a high standard. 

It is a fact that progress during the 
last 50 years has been pushed along lines 
even more important in their way than 
the increase in tonnage, the cheapening 
of product, or the raising of the stand- 
ard of quality. The captains of in- 
dustry in mining have, like others, 
displayed increasing care of their armies 
of men. 

It has become an axiom with every 
enlightened manager that every means 
which shall render more satisfactory the 
surroundings of the worker is bound to 
tell upon the results of their labor. A 
comparison of our modern mines and 
plants with those of former decades, of 
which some even now survive, proves 
what attention is paid to making the 
conditions under which manual labor is 
performed as tolerable as the circum- 
stances will permit. There has been a 
tremendous improvement in this direc- 
tion, and it does not lessen the achieve- 
ment when we frankly acknowledge 
that it is largely due to the recognition 


S39 


of the fact that progress in this direc- 
tion pays handsomely. 

Let me go a step further, and that is 
to make the claim that the crowning 
glory of the efforts to improve our min- 
ing and metallurgical industries has 
been that they have contributed their 
full share to the development of this 
materialistic age. They have helped to 
bring within the reach of an ever-grow- 
ing circle of people not alone the neces- 
sities, but also many of the comforts and 
some of the luxuries of life. Let me 
confess that it seems to me the greatest 
and most commendable of achievements 
to raise ever so little the mass of hu- 
manity in civilization, and that is what 
progress in the mechanic arts during the 
past century has accomplished in a strik- 
ing manner. Start the masses on a 
higher plane-—level them up. The great 
genius may not tower so far above them 
as once he did; but that is again in har- 
mony with our democratic institutions. 
Let there be an increasing equality of 
opportunity, even though it makes the 
struggle fiercer and fiercer, if only pub- 
lic conscience will demand with sterner 
emphasis that the methods for achieve- 
ment be lawful and fair. 


EXPEDITION INTO TEXAS OF FERNANDO 
DEL BOSQUE 


STANDARD-BEARER OF THE Kina, Don Car tos II 
In THE YEAR 1675 


TRANSLATED FROM AN OLD UNPUBLISHED SPANISH MANUSCRIPT 
By Brrry B. BREWSTER 


Rivadaneira Sotomayor, al- 
calde maior of the town of Nuestra 
Senora de Guadalupe de la Nueva Es- 
tremadura (now Monclova), having de- 


N the roth day of November, 
1674, Don Antonio Balcarcel 


cided that the good of his majesty’s 
service required a military organization 
to show the force and arms his majesty 
could bring to resist the Indians, who 
might not wish to live peaceably under 
the royal protection and who by their 


340 


example would seduce into rebellion 
barbarous tribes from whom injury to 
the royal service might be apprehended, 
resolved, under the authority of his 
royal commission and in the name of the 
king, to have the royal standard raised. 
After assisting at the holy sacrifice of 
the mass he gave the order and said : 
I consign this royal standard to the 
keeping of Fernando del Bosque, a 
Spaniard of the greatest experience and 
trustworthiness ; in whom are united all 
the qualifications and parts required, 
and in the manner that I should and 
ought and find occasion to as conquis- 
tador of the new conquest and settle- 
ment; and in the name of the king I 
elect him to be such royal standard- 
bearer for this new conquest and settle- 
ment, and in it shall be accorded to him 
all the preéminences and privileges al- 
lowed other royal standard-bearers of 
like new conquests, having and holding 
him for stich royal standard-bearer. 
And he shall use and exercise such office 
as he can and ought in-all things and 
causes connected therewith. 

To this the said nominee assented and 
received said royal standard and offered 
to serve his majesty voluntarily and of 
his own will, without regard to any sal- 
ary or pay therefor, and he made oath 
in the following form: I swear and 
make homage according to law, one, 
two, three times; because, being out of 
Spain I ought to do it the more: to hold 
and to guard this royal standard in 
peace and in war; working solely in 
the service of the king until the time 
shall come when I must die upon it, 
and when in obedience to the royal 
command whoever may be present shall 
carry it to the one that shall next be 
charged with its keeping. And I will 
fulfill all that a faithful vassal and loyal 
hidalgo should. 

_ Father Juan Larios had been lately 
appointed by the Franciscan order 
comisario misionero for the region be- 
yond the Rio del Norte, and had been 


Tue Nationa, GrocrAPHic MAGAZINE 


directed to carry his work of evangeliza- 
tion to the savage tribes inhabiting it. 
He and that other intrepid priest, Father 
Manuel de la Cruz, had already entered 
Texas severaltimes. Father Freyes, the 


‘historian, savs that Father Manuel dela 


Cruz penetrated into the country as far 
asthe Medina River. He had remained 
over the Rio del Norte with a tribe 
called the Boboles, but being informed 
that the Yrbipias had planned to capture 
him by command of a god that they 
had, this god being a man who had 
ordered them to bring the daring mis- 
sionary before him to answer for his 
temerity in coming into the country, 
the Boboles defended the priest, by 
command of Don Estaban, chief of the 
Gueiquesales. This chief with six In- 
dians of his tribe came to see General 
Balcarcel, and, being asked his purpose 
in coming, said that he and his tribe 
desired to become Christians and to re- 
ceive religious instruction, and he had 
come in the name of the following 
tribes, all of whom were his friends and 
allies : the Gueiquesales, Manos Prietas, 
Bocores, Siaexer, Pinnancas, Escabaca- 


Cascastes, Cocobiptas, Cocomaque, 
Oodame, Contotores, Colorados, Babi- 
amares, ‘[aimamares. These tribes 


had received religious instruction from 
the missionaries, and on one occasion 
they had protected them from the 
Yrbipias, who wished to capture Father 
Manuel de la Cruz when he was on the 
other-side of the Rio del Norte. 

On the 13th of January, 1675, another 
Indian, who was a Christian and called 
Francisco, belonging to the tribe called 
Bagnanames, accompanied by the chief 
of his tribe, who.was called in the idiom 
of his people Yosame Carboan, and 
eighteen warriors and three women, 
came to see General Balcarcel. All of 
them were brought by the Christian 
Indian, Francisco, from the mountains 
called Dacate in the Indian language, 
and which are about thirty leagues on 
the other side of the Rio del Norte. 


ExpepiTion Into Texas, 1675 


They said that they were tired of wan- 
dering through the mountains and dying 
like animals. On the 26th of January, 
1675, there came to General Balcarcel 
Pablo, an Indian chief of the nation 
called Manos Prietas, and with him 
eight Indians of the Gueiquesales, the 
Bapacorapimancos, and Espopolames. 
These, being examined, said that they 
were Christians and had been baptized 
by Father Juan Larios, and they had 
come to make their submission to the 
king. On the 29th of April, 1675, this 
same Indian Pablo came and brought 
with him 232 persons, great and small, 
as follows: 120 warriors, 65 women, 
and 47 boys and girls. They had come 
to ask to be placed in settlements, and 
said that they had left a large number 
of their people congregated together 
toward the Rio del Norte; that they 
were very numerous; they could not 
tell how many. These were followed 
by other chiefs living beyond the Rio 
del Norte, all of whom asked to be 
placed in settlements and to have mis- 
sionaries sent to them. 

General Balcarcel, having established 
his settlement of Nuestra Senora de 
Guadalupe de Estremadura, in Decem- 
ber, 1674, commenced building achurch, 
which was soon completed. Royal or- 
ders had been issued to push the con- 
quests as far as possible, and to gather 
the Indians together into settlements, 
where they might receive religious in- 
struction, cultivate the soil, and live 
peaceably under the royal protection. 
General Balcarcel, in compliance with 
this order, determined to send an expe- 
dition, under military command, along 
with Father Juan Larios, who had been 
appointed and directed to proceed at 
once to the conversion of the barbarous 
Indians living beyond the Rio del Norte. 
The military commander of this expe- 
dition was Fernando del Bosque, the 
royal standard-bearer, and Father Juan 
Larios, accompanied by Father Dioni- 
sio San Buenaventura, both of the 


341 


Franciscan order, was to have charge 
of all matters pertaining to the mis- 
sionary purposeoftheexpedition. With 
these there were ten other Spaniards— 
an interpreter of the Spanish and In- 
dian languages, Don Lazaro Augustin, 
himself an Indian, and Juan de la Cruz, 
of the Boboles, his ensign, and 20 others 
of his tribe who were most faithful to 
the Spaniards, and roo warriors of the 
Gueiquesale tribe accompanied the ex- 
pedition. 

They were ordered by General Bal- 
carcel to proceed to the Nadadores, and 
beyond as far as the Sierra Dacate, and 
to instruct the Indians to plough their 
lands and to cultivate them, and live in- 
dustriously, and they should go to such 
places as the good service of their majes- 
ties required, and they should instruct 
the Indians in the Holy Catholic re- 
ligion, and should take royal possession 
of all parts of the country visited, and 
take note of the longitude of the rivers, 
and of the trees, forests, and mountains, 
and should count the people, great and 
small—men, women, and children. 


JOURNAL OF FERNANDO DEL, BOSQUE, 
.. ROVAL STANDARD-BEARER, IN COM- 
MAND OF THE EXPEDITION 


April 30, 1675.—Left the town of 
Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe of this 
province in obedience to the order of the 
alealde maior, Don Antonio Balcarcel 
Riva de Neira Sotomayor; traveled 
along the river below the town toward 
the north, and having reached a place 
called Pajarito, on the river, about six 
leagues from the town, we found it un- 
possessed and without any signs of hav- 
ing been recently inhabited. We took 
possession of it in the name of the king 
our master, Don Carlos II, whom God 
defend, and in sign of possession we 
erected a high wooden cross, and at this 
place we saw many fish in the river and 
caught some. We gave it the name of 
San Felipe de Jesus. 

May 2, 7675.—On the first of May 


342 


left the place called San Felipe de Jesus, 
always traveling toward the north, along 
the same river for about four leagues, 
where it joined another stream, which 
we traveled along, still toward the north, 
leaving on our right hand in the direc- 
tion of the sunrise a range of high hills 
with sharp peaks, and passing beyond 
them we reached the ford of a river 
called the Nadadores, which place we 
found unpossessed and uninhabited. 
We took royal possession of it in the 
name of the king. Today religious in- 
struction was given to the Indians, who 
were fishing in the stream, which was 
full andswift. There were poplars and 
forests of mesquite along its banks. 
This place is about ten leagues from 
Sau Felipe. We erected a high wooden 
cross on the bank of this river and 
named the place San Francisco del Paso. 
We saw taken from this stream turtles 
and many large fish. 

May 4, 1675.—Having left the place 
called San Francisco del Paso on the 
Nadadores, and having crossed the river 
and traveled toward the north, having 
all the time a high and long sierra on 
our left (this long chain ran from south 
to north), after traveling about four 
leagues we came toa creek at a long 
ridge; there was running water in it, 
and our Indians called it in their lan- 
guage Toporica. We took royal pos- 
session of it in the name of the king, 
and in sign thereof erected a high 
wooden cross. We gave this place the 
name of Santa Cruz. 

On the same day, month, and year, 
having left the place called Santa Cruz 
and having traveled about four leagues 
toward the north, still having the said 
chain of mountains on the same side of 
us, we reached a creek below a ridge 
and in frontof a peak. ‘There was run- 
ning water in it and a growth of tule. 
We took possession of this place in the 
name of the king and gave it the name 
of Santa Catalina Martyr. We erected 
a high wooden cross and performed the 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


other acts necessary to the assertion of 
our rights of possession. Religious in- 
struction was given to the Indians. 

May 5, 1675.—\,eft said place called 
Santa Catalina Martyr and traveled 
about six leagues toward the north, hav- 
ing the sierra already mentioned always 
in the same position. We reached a 
broad river with groves of very large 
poplars, cedars, and mesquite, with ex- 
tensive and beautiful plains of green 
grass; adelightiul place. The Indians 
said it was called the River Savinas, or, 
in their language, Muero. We gave it 
the name of San Antonio. It was un- 
inhabited. We took possession of it in 
the name of the king, our master, and 
in sign thereof erected a high wooden 
cross. ‘There were fish of all kinds in 
this river and in abundance. Religious 
instruction was given to the Indians by 
the missionary fathers. 

May 7, 7675.—We left the Rio San 
Antonio and traveled toward the north. 
About 12 leagues from said Rio San 
Antonio de Savinas we came to a water- 
ing place, to which we gave the name 
of San Ilefonso. We found it unin- 
habited, with only the ruins of two 
grass huts. We took possession of it in 
the name of the king, our master, and 
in sign thereof erected a high wooden 
cross. We gave this place the name of 
San Juan Evangelista. The missionary 
fathers gave religious instruction to the 
Indians. 

May 9, 7675.—Having left the place 
called San Juan Evangelista and tray- 
eled toward the north about 6 leagues, 
across a plain with clumps of mesquite 
trees, we came to another watering place, 
in which there wastule growing. Itwas 
between high ridges, with groves of oak 
trees. We found it uninhabited and 
took royal possession of it in the name 
of his majesty and for said conquest, 
and we gave it the name of San Ray- 
mundo de Pena Fuerte, and in sign of 
possession erected a high wooden cross. 
Religious instruction was given to the 


ExpEDITION InNTo Texas, 1675 


Indians by Father Dionisio San Buena- 
ventura. 

May ro, 1675.—Having left the place 
called San Raymundo and traveled to- 
ward the north about 3 leagues, we 
reached a river that ran from west to 
east, which our Indians said was called 
Agua Azul (Blue Water). There were 
a great many fish in this river of all 
kinds, and it was a very beautiful place, 
with many poplars, willow, mesquite, 
and guisache trees and plains of green 
grass. It was uninhabited and we took 
possession of it in the name of the king, 
our master, and in sign thereof erected 
a high wooden cross. We called this 
river Rio de San Josefa. The mission- 
ary fathers gave religious instruction to 
the Indians. 

May rr, 1675.—Having left the place 
called Rio de San Josefa and traveled 
about 3 leagues toward the north, 


through a very grassy plain, with many 


mesquite trees, we reached avery broad, 
full, and swift river, its width being 
about 4oovaras. ‘This our Indians said 
was called the Rio del Norte. We 
found it uninhabited and deserted but 
for a few ranches of those Indians who 
construct their huts of grass; as we 
had traveled above the ford, our Indians 
determined to cross where the river was 
divided into three streams. It was 
necessary to construct rafts of wood to 
cross over the middle one. In crossing 
the first the water reached above our 
stirrups and almost to the covers of our 
saddle trees. It was 200 varas wide 
and a vara and a half in depth all the 
way through, and there were willow 
trees on its banks and on an island in 
the middle. It was very pleasing, and 
there were many large fish and turtles 
caught, to which we bear witness, hav- 
ing held them in our hands. We took 
possession in the name of the king, of 
said river and territory. This stream 
appeared to run from west toeast. We 
gave it the name of San Buenaventura, 
and in sign of possession erected a high 


S14 


wooden cross. Father Dionisio San 
Buenaventura gave religious instruction 
to the Indians. 

May 13, 1675.—Having left the place 
called Rio San Buenaventura del Norte 
and traveled toward the north about 4 
leagues, we reached a creek between 
some ranges of hills, where we found 
54 Indian watriors of the Yoricas and 
Jeapes tribes, with loads of buffalo meat. 
We examined them through Don Au- 
gustin, the interpreter, in their language 
and the Spanish. Having asked them 
many questions, they said they had 
come to kill buffalo to get meat for the 
sustenance of their familiesand ranches, 
and having no food in their country, 
necessity had compelled them to come 
so far in search of it; that there was a 
great number of them, they could not 
say exactly how many; that they de- 
sired to become Christians and to be 
placed in settlements and receive re- 
ligious instruction from the missionaries; 
that the fear they had of other tribes, 
who were their enemies, had prevented 
their going to seek them ; that two of 
their number had been killed, those who 
had done this being the Ocames, Pata- 
quakes, and Yrbipimas; and that in 
proof of their submission to the king, 
our lord, they would go with us as far 
as the Indian tribes of the Sierra Dacate 
and Yacasole, and they would send to 
their ranches for their people to come 
out to wherever our chaplain could give 
them religious instruction. Wenamed 
this place San Gregorio Nasianseno. 

May 14, 1675.—We started, having 
with us the Indians of the Yoricas and 
Jeapes, already mentioned, and traveled 
from the place called San Gregorio 
Nasianseno for about three leagues to- 
ward the north. We reached a water- 
ing place in a plain without other trees 
than mesquite. We found it uninhab- 
ited and unpossessed. We took posses- 
sion of it in the name of the king, and 
in sign of possession thereof erected a 
high wooden cross and named the place 


344 


San Bisente Ferrer. "The missionary 
fathers gave religious instruction to the 
Indians. 

On the same day and in said province 
and place called San Bisente Ferrer, the 
Indians and Spaniards killed two buffalo 
for our people to eat ; the form of these 
animals is very ugly; they resemble 
bulls and cows ; the skin is covered with 
wool; their shoulders are high, which 
makes them look humpbacked ; they 
have a short neck and their heads are 
covered with long woolly hair, which 
hangs over their eyes and interferes 
with their seeing well. Their horns 
are short and thick, but like those of 
a bull; their rump and buttocks are 
shaped like those of a hog ; their fore- 
feet and knees, and from there up until 
the junction with the shoulders, are 
covered with long woolly hair, like the 
beard of a goat. Their tail is naked to 
near the end, where it has a heavy tuft 
of hair. The females had four teats. 
They were about the size of neat cattle ; 
they looked at people in a sidelong way 
like wild boars. 

In this same place, San Bisente Ferrer, 
on this same day and month and year, 
before me, Fernando del Bosque, lieu- 
tenant of the alcalde maior, appeared 
an Indian chief of the Bibit nation, who 
said he was a Christian and had been 
baptized in Saltillo, and another Indian, 
who said he was chief of the Jume 
nation. They were examined through 
the interpreter, Don Lazaro Augustin, 
in their language and the Spanish 
language. Being asked several ques- 
tions, they said they had desired for 
along time to become Christians, and 
some of their people had gone to the 
town of Saltillo and succeeded, but the 
greater number of them were unable to 
vo, for it was far and they could not 
bring their people, for which reason 
many of them had died from smallpox 
without receiving the waters of bap- 
tism, and they wished and asked to be 
gathered together in a settlement and 


Tue Narionat GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


to receive instruction in the Christian 
doctrine. This they had not been able 
to do themselves ; nor had they been 
able to join the remainder of the tribe 
for fear of the barbarous Indians, who 
would kill them and the people they 
had with them, being one hundred and 
five persons, great and small—fifty-five 
warriors and the remainder women and 
children. 

In said place, San Bisente Ferrer, on 
said day, month, and year, before me, 
said lieutenant, appeared six Indian 
warriors who said they belonged to the 
Pinanacas, Xaeser, Teneinamar, who 
are of the party of Don Estaban, 
Gueiquesale. They were examined by 
Don Lazaro Augustin, interpreter, in 
their idiom and the Spanish language. 
Being asked why they had come to see 
me, they replied that they had come in 
the name of their chiefs and to make 
homage to his majesty the king, and 
that they wished to live under the 
Christian doctrine and to remain in a 
settlement. 

May 15, 1675.—Having left the place 
called San Bisente Ferrer with our com- 
pany, the missionary fathers, Spaniards 
and Indians, we traveled toward the 
north, and reached a river about four 
leagues from the place called San Bisente 
Ferrer, which our Indians said was called 
in their language Ona, which means 
salty. We took possession of it in the 
name of the king, and in token thereof 
erected a high wooden cross. Wenamed 
this place San Isidro Labrador. We 
found many live oak and mesquite trees 
and herds of buffalo, fine pasturage, and 
many fish in the river. It was unin- 
habited. 

In said place and said province, said 
day and year, in said place called San 
Isidro Labrador, before me, said lieu- 
tenant, appeared the chiefs, Noman, 
Tereodan, Teaname, Ttumamar, with 
their people, whom we examined 
through sworn interpreters acquainted 
with the Mexican and Castilian lan- 


ExrepDITION Into Texas, 1675 


guages, these being Don Lazaro Au- 
gustin, governor of the pueblo of San 
Miguel de Luna, of the town of Guada- 
lupe, of this province, and Pascual, an 
Indian. These chiefs were each asked 
questions apart from each other to see 
if what they said agreed, and they all 
said that they were heathen, without 
knowledge of the true God or what He 
was ; nor did they know anything of the 
true way of salvation and were without 
light in regard to it ; that they wished 
to become Christians and to be baptized 
with their children and their wives and to 
live as such in the settlement or settle- 
ments in which they might be placed, 
and though they were too old to enjoy it 
themselves, their children could, and 
they would raise them as Christians and 
they would continue in the same way, 
and from this time they gave their alle- 
giance to the king, our master, Don 
Carlos II, and they would be friends to 
theSpaniards. At this they all shouted, 
“Viva, Viva, Viva, the King, our 
master!’’ and from what I observed, 
with much sincerity and zeal. In the 
name of the king I received them under 
the royal protection, and assured them 
on the part of the king that all would 
be accomplished, and I demanded that 
on their part they should live quietly 
and peaceably and assemble for cate- 
chism at the place most convenient to 
them. Because of the distance from 
their habitations and of the dissensions 
that existed between the barbarous 
tribes in the territory, the one against 
the other, and which lead to their kill- 
ing each other, and not having the 
means of feeding so many people my- 
self, I told them to remain for the pres- 
ent in the most convenient place. They 
said through the interpreter that they 
would do so. Their people came up 
and went and kissed the sleeves of the 
habits of the missionaries, Fathers Juan 
Larios and Dionisio de San Buena- 
ventura, and asked permission to give 
them an offering of what they had, in 


S4r5 


thanksgiving to God for having opened 
to them the way of truth. They then 
placed on the ground, some a piece of 
lard, some a piece of tallow, and others 
the skins of animals, such as they use 
for clothing, beds, and covering. 

In said place and river of San Isidro, 
in said province, on the 16th day of 
May, 1675, we erected a portable altar 
with fittings for the purpose of cele- 
brating mass, and at the sound of a little 
bell all the people came to be present at 
it and to hear mass chanted by Father 
Juan Larios. All the people attended, 
and when it was over they begged 
Father Larios to baptize them. He 
made them understand by the inter- 
preter that he could not do this until 
they had learned the prayers, and he 
consoled them by baptizing fifty-five 
children at the breast, the Spaniards 
being sponsors for them. Religious 
instruction was given them, and acount, 
was made of those with the four chiefs 
and they numbered four hundred and 
twenty-five warriors and seven hundred 
and forty-seven women and children of 
all ages, making a total of one thousand 
one hundred and seventy-two. 

At said place of San Isidro, on said 
day, month, and year, I, the lieutenant 
of the alcalde maior, installed in pos- 
session of his ministry, as comiserio 
misionero, Father Juan Jarios, in ac- 
cordance with the royal provision. 

On said day, month, and year, and at 
said place, before me, said lieutenant of 
the alcalde maior, appeared an Indian 
of the Guiequesale nation, and brought 
into my presence a Spanish boy, who 
appeared to be about twelve years old. 
He had a line on his face, marking him 
from his forehead to his nose, and two 
lines on his cheeks, one on each, and 
rows of them on his left arm and one 
on the right. Having examined said 
Indian through the interpreter, D. La- 
zaro Augustin, and the Indian, Pascual, 
also an interpreter, he said, being asked 
where he had gotten the Spanish boy, 


346 


that his, the said Indian’s, mother had 
raised the boy; that many years before 
the Cabesas had brought him with 
others from Yndee, near Parral, and 
had given him to his mother, and that 
he loved him as his own brother, and 
he had brought him to the Spaniards as 
a proof of friendship and in order that 
he might be sent to his own parents. 
The boy was not examined at this time 
as to how many more Spaniards the In- 
dians had because he could not speak 
the Spanish language. Only said In- 
dian was asked if there were more Span- 
ish children among the Indians. He 
said that said Cabesas Indians, when 
they had brought this one, had another 
boy and a girl, and they killed the boy 
with their arrows, having placed said 
boy standing up, and he saw that he 
clasped a cross in his hands, and that he 
recited prayers and was praying until 
he died; and that the Spanish girl they 
kept with them to serve them, and that 
in a raid the said Cabesas made to rob 
and kill, one of their own number was 
killed, and they took the girl and shot 
her with arrows until she was dead, 
and they left her lying in that place, 
and that two years afterward he passed 
that place and found her just as she 
had been left; her body had not become 
corrupted nor had the animals eaten it; 
and, seeing that, he had taken her up 
and carried her to a cave, where she 
now was, and that she had very long 
hair, and he knew no more than this, 
which was the truth. 

May 18, 7675.—I\n said province I, 
said alcalde maior, having left said place 
called San Isidro and traveled about 8 
leagues, more or less, toward the north, 
and having reached a place and a small 
stream which was said to be called Da- 
cate, found it abandoned and uninhab- 
ited. We took possession of it in the 
name of the king, and we gave it the 
name of San Bernardino, and in sign 
thereof we erected a high wooden cross ; 
and this day came before me the chief 


Tue Nationat GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


of the Geniocane tribe of Indians, who 
said that he was awaiting the mission- 
aries, with his people in another place 
further on, so that they might receive 
religious instruction, and the reason 
they had not come was because of the 
number of their enemies, who would not 
allow them to pass and seek succor, and, 
above all, they killed one another ; and 
upon this the missionaries determined 
to grant their petition and give them 
religious instruction and spiritual assist- 
ance. 

May 20, 7675.—Having left the place 
called San Bernardino in company of 
said fathers, comisario misionero and 
capellan gobernador, and Indians, and 
having traveled about 8 leagues toward 
the north and in said district, said In- 
dians that had come out to receive us 
reached their village or assistencia. It 
was on a stream, between two ridges, 
where there were many arbors of grapes. 
growing like wild grapes, and the green 
grapes were very large, like those of 
Castile, and there were a great many of 
them, like a vineyard. We took posses- 
sion of it in the name of the king, and 
in sign thereof erected a high wooden 
cross. Religious instruction was given 
to the Indians by Father Dionisio San 
Buenaventura. 

May 21, 1675.—In said province and 
said place, already mentioned, which 
we gave the name of San Jorje, I, said 
lieutenant of the alcalde maior, bear 
witness that said fathers comisioneros 
ordered an altar to be erected, and onit 
the father Dionisio deSan Buenaventura. 
offered the holy sacrifice of the mass, 
and said Geniocanes Indians assisted at 
it, with those of the other tribes, and 
after mass they received religious in- 
struction from Father Juan Larios ; and 
having counted them there were sixty- 
five warriors and one hundred and thir- 
teen women and children, making a. 
total of one hundred and seventy--eight 
persons of said Geniocane tribe, all of 
whom desired to become Christians, 


ExpEDITION Into Texas, 1675 


and asked the father Comisionero to let 
them become Christians,and he consoled 
them by telling them when they had 
learned how to pray he would baptize 
them. On this day the said comisario 
misionero took possession of the exer- 
cise of his office. 

May 23, 1675.—In said place of San 
Jorje, I, said lieutenant of the alcalde 
maior, having recognized how great 
was the number of Indians desiring to 
become Christians and to be placed 
under religious instruction, and in vil- 
lages and settlements, as each day there 
came to me chiefs from the various 
tribes, and as they are all far from the 
town of Guadalupe and enemies to each 
other, yet all wish to be instructed in 


the Christian doctrine at the same time,, 


and as they gather together according 
to their barbarous feuds, and fight and 
kall each other. (The country is ap- 
parently divided into three parts or 
tracts. The country which reaches 
from Guadalupe to the north, on the 
left hand, is under the control of Don 
Estaban, chief of the Guiequesale, and 
that in the center is peopled by the fol- 
lowers of Juan de la Cruz, captain of 
the Bobole nation, and that on the right 
hand, occupied by the Catujanos, Tili- 
jees, Apes, Pachaques, with their fol- 
lowers among the Indians) and all wish 
to receive religious instruction from the 
missionaries and Spaniards, and they 
are in the midst of enemies, and we 
were unable to carry out their wishes, 
I determined to return to the town of 
Guadalupe and make a report to the 
alcalde maior. 

May 25, 1675.—In said province I, 
the lieutenant of the alcalde maior, 
having left the place called San Jorge 
in said company of the comisario mis- 
ionero and the chaplain and traveled 
about 14 leagues toward the north, 
reached a small creek with many groves 
of trees. We found it deserted and un- 
inhabited. It was between high-peaked 
ridges. We took possession of it in 


Se] 


the name of the king and erected a 
high wooden cross in sign of possession. 
We gave it the name of San Pablo Er- 
mitano. Religiousinstruction was given 
to the Indians by Father Dionisio San 
Buenaventura, and he asked the Indians 
of the four chiefs, already mentioned in 
the report, at San Isidro and followers of 
Don Estaban if they would remain quiet 
in their territory and not fight and kill 
each other, and would congregate them- 
selves together under their principal 
chief, and these chiefs said that they 
would remain quiet, waiting until a 
missionary should be sent to them to 
instruct them, and in the meantime 
they would assemble in pueblos. 

May 29, 1675.—In said province I, 
said lieutenant of the alcalde maior, 
having left the place called San Pablo 
Ermitano on our return to the town of 
Guadalupe in company of said mission- 
ary fathers, the Spaniards and Indians 
reached another point of the Rio San 
Buenaventura del Norte, where we 
found a part of the Indians of the Bo- 
boles tribe with their women and chil- 
dren, who were there killing buffalo 
for their subsistence. It was some time 
since they had left their pueblo. They 
were asked if they would join with their 
chief and others of their tribe and re- 
ceive religious instruction from the mis- 
sionaries, and they agreed to this. 

June I, 1675.—In said province I, 
said lieutenant of said alcalde maior, 
having left said Rio de San Buenaven- 
tura and traveled about 20 leagues to- 
ward the west, reached a river which 
was said to be called the Nueces, where 
we found the chiefs of the Bocora and 
Pinanaca at some springs of water with 
many walnuts and groves of different 
kinds of trees. We took possession of 
it in the name of the king, and in sign 
thereof erected a high wooden cross. 
Religious instruction was given to the 
Indians by Father Juan Larios, and an 
altar was erected under a cover of 
branches and Father Dionisio San Bue- 


348 


naventura said mass, and at the sound 
of a bell the people congregated to re- 
cite the prayers. A count was made of 
the followers of the Bocora chief there, 
and they numbered 150 persons—62 
warriors and 88 women and children— 
and in this place I gave him * possession 
in all that related to his ecclesiastical 
administration. 

June ro, 1675.—In said province I, 
the lieutenant of the alcalde maior, 
having left the river and place of Senor 
San Diego, in said company of the 
comisario misionero and the chaplain, 
Spaniards aud Indians, and traveled 
about twenty-two leagues, 
through the valley of the Rio San 
Antonio de Sabinas, we entered through 
an opening of one of the large sierras, 
called Obayas, and reached a creek, 
which we found deserted, uncultivated, 
and uninhabited. We took possession 
of it in the name of the king, for this 
conquest, and gave it the name of San 
Anbrosio, and in sign of possession we 
erected a high wooden cross, where the 
comisario misionero said mass, at which 
the Contore chief, Don Bernabe, with 
his people was present, and after mass 
religious instruction was given to the In- 
dians by the comisario misionero. We 
counted this nation and they numbered 
78 warriors and 130 Indian women and 
children. 

June 12, 1675.—In said province I, 
the said lieutenant of the alealde maior, 


* The comisario misionero. 


passing ' 


THe Nationa, GreocrRAPHic MaGAZINE 


having left the place called San An- 
brosio, and traveled about 14 leagues as 
it appeared, and toward the city of 
Guadalupe, and opposite it, at the foot 
of a high sierra, and toward the west of 
it, in company of said missionary fathers 
and Spaniards, we reached a water hole, 
deserted and uninhabited. We took 
possession of it in the name of the king, 
and in sign of possession erected a high 
wooden cross and named the place San 
Bartolemé. At this place came into my 
presence Don Salbador, chief of the 
Bobosarigami, with some of his people, 
who said he had sent for the remainder 
of his people, who had scattered for 
want of food. They were given religious 
instruction by the comisario misionero, 
Father Juan Larios, and afterward 
they were counted, and they numbered 
44 warriors and 75 women and children 
with the Tetecores; and they were di- 
rected to unite with the others, under 
Don Bernabe and Don Estaban. To 
all of which we bear faith and sign with 
said fathers and our assisting witnesses, 
who were Anbrosio de Berlanga and 
Diego Luis Sanchez, Fernando del 
Bosque, Fr. Juan Larios, Fr. Dionisio 
de San Buenaventura, Diego Luis San- 
chez, Anbrosio Berlanga. 


On June 12 the expedition returned 
to the town of Nuestra Senora de Guada- 
lupe, and the royal standard-bearer, Fer- 
nando del Bosque, reported to the alcalde 
maior and conquistador, Don Antonio 
Balcarcel Rivadaneira Sotomayor. 


ANSE, JeVAR IDSC (Gua DAIL eves 


NE of the most important and 
interesting efforts of the Bureau 
of Forestry is to encourage land- 

owners to start plantations of commer- 
cially valuabletrees. A large plantation 
of useful trees, such as the Hardy Ca- 
talpa, a few years after planting, will 
yield each year in posts and stakes about 


as large and regular a return on the 
original investment as an orange or 
fruit plantation. There are a number 
of Hardy Catalpa plantations in Kansas, 
Iowa, and Nebraska which for several 
years have been paying their owners 
very good profits. The tree grows rap- 
idly, and is exceedingly durable. The 


THe Harpy CaraLpPa 


349 


From Wm. I,. Hall, U.S. Department of Agriculture 


Posts from the Planting of 1890, Yaggy Plantation 


Bureau of Forestry has made a special 
study of the Hardy Catalpa, and re- 
cently published an interesting little 
book describing the tree, by Mr Wil- 
liam L. Hall. The following para- 
graphs are an abstract of the report : * 

Forest planting on the prairies west 
of the Mississippi River began with the 
earliest settlers. To plant trees for pro- 
tection from sun and wind seemed one 
of the first and most important things 
to be done, and with the building of a 
house and the breaking up of a garden 
patch it formed a part of the settler’s 
first summer’s work. Each year there- 
after, as time and means permitted, the 
plantation was increased. Scarcely a 
decade passed before extensive groves 
for the general purposes of shelter and 
ornament appeared on almost every 
farm. ‘The success of these proved that 


*The Hardy Catalpa By William L. Hall, 
Superintendent of Tree Planting. With 30 
full-page plates. Bureau of Forestry, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 37. 


the want of the natural forest could in 
part be supplied by planted timber. 

The growing of forest trees for other 
farm needs, such as fuel, posts, and 
poles, was also practiced by many set- 
tlers, for the prices of these materials 
were extremely high in the districts far 
from the natural forest. The idea of 
growing posts and poles to sell, how- | 
ever, did not meet with approval for a 
number of years. It was too long an 
investment to be attractive in a country 
just settled. About twenty-five years 
ago a few men, impressed with the pre- 
vailing high prices of such materials 
and believing it possible to produce them 
in plantations within fifteen or twenty 
years, began to plant timber as an in- 
vestment. Their example encouraged 
others to plant for the same purpose, 
and as a result of the work there are 
now in the Middle West quite a large 
number of commercial plantations, in 
some of which the marketing of products. 
has already begun. 


Oo Tue Natrona, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 
35 


From Wm. Ll. Hall, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


Trees which were not Cut Back when Young. Planting of 1891 


Many side branches and crooked form the result 


Tue Harpy Carrara 


Of the trees used for commercial 
planting none have been planted more 
extensively in the region of southern 
Iowa and Nebraska and eastern Kansas 
than the Hardy Catalpa. In its native 
habitat along the lower Wabash and 
Ohio Rivers this tree nearly a century 
ago gained a reputation for rapid growth 


oo 


and durability. A few years’ trial on 
the plains sufficed to prove its good 
qualities for that region. It was easily 


propagated, grew rapidly on prairie soil, 
had good form, was drought resistant, 
had few insect or fungous enemies, and 
above all was a lasting timber, adapted 
to many uses. 


Such good qualities soon 


From Wim. L. Hall, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


Wood of the Hardy Catalpa After Lying Ninety Years in Water 


Block from a tree which grew near New Madrid, Mo., and was felled by the earthquake of 1812. 
It was taken out of the water a short time ago and worked into fence posts 


Tue NarionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


354 


M2 eet A ehionastee— 


Stes 


es 


griculture 


From Wm. L,. Hall, U.S. Department of A 


Southern Iowa 


) 


ation of Hardy Catalpa 


Year-Old Plant 


20- 


A 


EXPLORATIONS IN [TIBET 


brought it into general recognition. In 
the regions named it took the lead as a 
commercial tree, especially for such pur- 
poses as fence posts, telegraph and tele- 
phone poles, and railroad ties. 

Its value for most of these purposes 
has been quite fully demonstrated. As 
a post timber it has given excellent sat- 
isfaction. It ranks with Black Locust 
and Osage Orange in durability, while 
it surpasses them in rate of growth, 
form, penetrability, and freedom from 
checking. Altogether, as a post timber 
suitable for growing ina large section 
of the Middle West it has no equal. 


For telegraph and telephone poles its: 


only deficiency seems to be a tendency 
toward crookedness, but possibly this 
can be overcome by special treatment. 


So) 


As a railroad-tie timber the Hardy 
Catalpa has not had sufficient trial to 
demonstrate what its rank should be. 
Experiments have left no doubt as to 
its resistance to decay. The only ques- 
tion lies in its resistanee to wear. So 
far as tried, it does not stand the wear and 
tear of a railroad track so well as White 
Oak, especially under heavy traffic. In 
the Middle West, however, the traffic on 
many railroads is comparatively light, 
while the decay of timber is particularly 
rapid. Under these peculiar conditions 
Catalpa will probably outlast Oak as a 
tie timber. ‘The main commercial plan- 
tations of Catalpa are in lowa, Kansas, 
and Nebraska. Kansas especially has 
a number of large and highly successful 
plantations. 


pyr ORA TIONS IN IBED 


N interesting account is given in 
A a late number of the V. Y. 
Tribune of some recent explo- 
rations in the heart of Tibet by a Rus- 
sian subject, G. Z. Zoubikov, who suc- 
ceeded in residing quietly at Lhassa for 
some months. Zoubikov’s success de- 
serves especial credit in view of the 
recent unsuccessful attempts to enter 
Lhassa by Sven Hedin and Colonel 
Kozloff. 

M. Zoubikoy is a Bouriat and a gradu- 
ate of the Oriental Faculty of the Uni- 
versity of St Petersburg. As a born 
Buddhist and familiar from childhood 
with Tibetan, he found no difficulty in 
passing fora llama. He brought back 
a great number of photographs and 
other illustrations of the life of the 
country, and his book, which will soon 
be published, will contain much infor- 
mation hitherto unobtainable. 

M. Zoubikov made an extended re- 
port of his journey at a meeting of the 
Geographical Society a few days ago. 
He was immediately awarded the 


Przhevalsky prize, which is conferred 
in honor of the first Russian Tibet ex- 
plorer. 

The frontiers of Tibet, which were 
closed to European travelers after the 
French explorers Huc and Gabet were 
expelled from Lhassa, in 1846, have not 
been absolutely shut against a certain 
portion of Russian subjects, namely, 
the Buddhistic Bouriats of the Baikal 
region. The Bouriats are talented 
people, and the same value attaches to 
M. Zoubikov’s observations as would 
be the case were he a European. His 
stay lasted over a year. 

In the summer of 1900 M. Zoubikov 
entered Tibet from the north as a mem- 
ber of a caravan of seventy pilgrims, in- 
cluding many llamas. He approached 
central Tibet by the Boumza Mountain, 
where Przhevalsky was turned back in 
1870. ‘The road led through a treeless 
country with snow-topped mountains 
extending east and west in parallel 
chains. The people in this region were 
few and nomadic. An agricultural 


354° 


community was found within only 
sixty or seventy miles of Lhassa. 


CLIMATE AND POPULATION 


The climate was found to be harsh and 
dry. Snow falls occasionally from De- 
cember to March; rain from May to 
August. April, September, October, 
and November are dry. The medium 
annual temperature was found to be 42, 
67, and 50 degrees Fahrenheit for morn- 
ing, noon, and night respectively. The 
data for December was 17, 34, and 27 
degrees, and for July 60, 77, and 65 
degrees. 

The population, which has at times 
been estimated at 33,000,000, is proba- 
bly about one-tenth of this number. It 
is decreasing through disease, particu- 
larly smallpox, and on account of the 
large number of celibate priests. 

The sons of Chinese soldiers and mer- 
chants temporarily resident in Tibet are 
counted Chinese, the daughters Tibet- 
ans. Other foreign residents are Indians 
from Cashmere and Mongolians and 
Tibetans from Nepul, the latter being 
skilled artisans, architects, sculptors, 
and jewelers. The Cashmere Mahom- 
etans are traders. ‘They usually convert 
their Tibetan wives. 

Almost all the land in central Tibet 
belongs to the Dalai Llama. Only 
high officials in Lhassa have hereditary 
homes. The Tibetan houses are of brick 
and stone, and have chimneys only in 
the kitchen. The other rooms have 
holes to let the smoke escape, and are 
cheerlessly cold. Dried dung is the 
principal fuel. 

The common folks wear white, the 
wealthy red,officials yellow, and soldiers 
blue clothing of homespun. Jewels are 
worn in great abundance by the women. 
Barley meal, soup, the raw flesh of the 
yak and of sheep, butter, sour milk, and 
vegetables are main items of the diet. 
Wheat spirits sell for a cent a bottle. 
Men smoke tobacco and the priests take 
snuff. 


Tue NationaL GrocRAPHic MaGAZINE 


PEOPLE RELIGIOUS AND IMMORAL 


The people of central Tibet are pas- 
sionately attached to their religious ob- 
servances, which are purely formal. 
Prayers are regarded as of magic po- 
tency and figure in all ordinary and 
extraordinary affairs of life. Medicine 
is in small popular favor. Morals are 
primitive, and marriage ties are loose. 
Both polygamy and polyandry are com- 
mon. 

Agriculture and cattle-raising are the 
principalemployments. Wheat, barley, 
peas and beans, cattle, sheep, yaks, 
horses, asses, and mules are the main 
products. Yaks and asses are used as 
pack animals. Labor is cheap, men 
being paid two or three cents a day, 
while women usually serve for their 
food and clothing. Even a llama re- 
ceives only ten cents for a whole day’s 
prayers. Sheepskins, cattle, yak tails, 
statues, books, and yellow llama caps 
are exported. The yak tails serve as 
horse tails in the outfit of Turkish 
pachas. English and Indian cottons 
and woolens and copper and enamel 
utensils are introduced from India and 
tea, silks, cottons, horses, and asses 
from China. 


EXHAUSTING METHOD OF WORSHIP 


Lhassa was built in the seventh cen- 
tury. It has a picturesque location on 
the southern slope of a mountain, with 
luxurious gardens on the west and 
south. The Uitchu River passes to the 
south of the city. Dikes and canals 
have been constructed as protections 
against overflows. - A fine, broad street 
around the city serves for religious 
processions and penitential exercises. 
Penitents go the length of this street, 
falling to the ground every five or six 
feet, so that in a day they prostrate 
themselves about 3,000 times. The city 
is small, having at most only 10,000 
regular inhabitants. It is, however, an 
important trade center. ‘The native 
traders are all women. 


GARDENING IN NorruHeRN ALASKA 


The Temple of Buddha, in the center 
of the city, is about 140 feet square. It 
is three stories high and has three gilded 
Chinese roofs. It shelters a gigantic 
bronze statue of Buddha, which has a 
hammered gold and jeweled headdress. 
A sacrificial fire, fed with melted butter, 
burns before the statue. Other statues 
and relics are kept in other chambers of 
the same temple, among which is the 
statue of the Goddess of Women, to 
which are offered spirits and wheat. 
The wheat is at once eaten by mice. In 
the same temple are also rooms for the 
Dalai Llama and his council. 


The residence of the Dalai Llama is ; 


about a mile away from Lhassa, on Mt 
Bodala. It was built in the seventh 
century. Near by is the old castle 
Hodson-Bodala, which is 1,400 feet long 
and nine stories high. Here are the 
treasury, the mint, the schools of theol- 
ogy and medicine, quarters for 1,200 
officials and 500 monks, and a prison. 
As many as 1,000 priests take part in 
religious processions to this mountain. 

M. Zoubikoy also minutely describes 
various monasteries and temples, in- 
cluding three near Lhassa, where 15,000 
monks are mainly engaged in learned 
pursuits. At one of these—Brabun— 
nearly 6,000 boys, young men, and even 
gray-bearded patriarchs are studying 
theology, the total number of resident 
monks being 8,000. 


SELECTION OF THE LLAMA 


Tibetan Buddhism, brought from In- 
dia in the seventh century, struggled 
against the native Shamanism until the 
ninth century, when a compromise was 


355 


agreed upon. According to the current 
teaching, there are many spirits which 
are continually reincarnated in men. 
The Dalai Llama is the living Buddha. 
Another defender of the faith is the 
spirit Choidshen, whose power is mani- 
fested through pious ascetics who spend 
their lives in contemplation. 

Since the fifteenth century all power, 
civil and spiritual, has been nominally 
in the hands of the Dalai Llama, but 
China maintains a Manchu resident and 
anarmy. In order to avoid strife in 
selecting a Dalai Llama, the electoral 
council places three strips of paper with 
the names of three boys in an urn, and 
the Manchu resident removes one with 
a small staff. The new Dalai Llama’s 
education is intrusted to a college of 
learned men. Until his twenty-second 
year the government is in the hands of 
a regent appointed by the Emperor of 
China. The present Dalai Llama is 
twenty-seven yearsold. Heis the fifth 
since 1806, one of the regents having 
continued in authority for an unusually 
long time, owing to three children se- 
lected to be Llamas having died before 
attaining majority. 

The Dalai Llamas’ Council, in whose 
hands is the actual power, embraces four 
so-called ‘‘ Galons,’’ appointed by the 
Emperor of China. ‘The administra- 
tion is in the hands of a closed aristoc- 
racy, and bribery and corruption are 
nearly universal. Among the common 
penalties are drowning, torture, flog- 
ging, banishment, and fines. The Tib- 
etan army of four thousand men is poorly 
disciplined, and is armed with bows and 
old fashioned guns. Robbery flourishes. 


GARDENING IN NORTHERN ALASKA 


By MiIppLeTon SMITH 


gardening in Alaska, north of 


Pree: the first experimental 
the Arctic circle, was done by 


the International Polar Expedition to 
Point Barrow, Alaska, 1881-1883, which 
was organized for the purpose of coop- 


356 


erating in the work of circumpolar ob- 
servation proposed by the International 
Polar Conference. The main object of 
the expedition was the prosecution of 
observations in terrestrial magnetism 
and meteorology. Experimental gar- 
dening was an elective investigation. 

The arctic night at Point Barrow, 
which is of 70 days’ duration, ends 
at noon on January-23, when the upper 
edge of the sun’s disk appears above 
the southern horizon. ‘The next day 
the entire disk is visible. Each suc- 
ceeding day the sunrises a little earlier 
and a little more to the east of south, 
and sets a little later and a little more 
to the west of south, and finally, when 
the day and night are of equal length, 
it rises directly in the east and sets in 
the west. The day continues still to 
lengthen and the night to shorten until 
the middle of May, when the midnight 
sun appears above the northern horizon 
and the long arctic day begins; the 
sun then remains above the horizon both 
day and night for 70 days, or until 
July 24, when it dips its lower disk at 
midnight below the northern horizon, 
and night and day again begin. But at 
no time are the sun’s rays at Point 
Barrow vertical. The maximum alti- 
tude is 42° 3’, which occurs at noon on 
June 22. 

The snow does not begin to melt until 
after the sun remains continuously above 

the horizon, and does not disappear 
’ before July, but the landcloseto the coast 
is practically free from snow by the fifth 
of June. The snowfall is very light, 
the depth on the land along the coast at 
no time exceeding 15 or 18inches. The 
total annual precipitation—rainfall or 
melted snow—is only eight inches. 

A. level treeless area (tundra) occu- 
pies the entire Point Barrow region. 
The subsoil, principally sand and gravel, 
perpetually frozen, is covered on the 
tundra generally by a light, clayey soil, 
and at spots near the coast by a dark, 
loam-like soil, which thaws to a depth 


Tue Nationa GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


of from 3 to 9 inches. Upon the latter 
soil, within 200 yards of the ocean water 
line, the gardening described in this 
article was done. The soil has been 
enriched somewhat by refuse from 
Eskimo iglus, or permanent dwellings, 
which many years previous existed 
there. The garden was dug to the depth 
of about 4 inches and raked. No other 
preparation of the soil was made, and 
no further attention was given to the 
garden from the time of seeding to 
harvest day. 

On June 13 theseed of lettuce, radish, 
and mustard were sown. By this date 
caterpillars, worms, flies, and beetles 
appeared ; ranunculus flowers were in 
bloom. June 21, one day before. the 
sun reached its highest altitude and 
eight days after the date of seeding, the 
lettuce and radish germinated, but the 
mustard failed of germination. By this 
date additional species of flowers, in- 
cluding the daisy and the willow, were 
in bloom, and the pools of fresh water, 
which had formed on the tundra from 
rain and melted snow, were fairly alive 
with insect life, upon which the red 
phalarope was feasting. 

The following table shows the tem- 
perature, precipitation, and weather 
from date of seeding to germination : 


al ture. ete 
Month ive ee | peseipe State of 
Max.) Min.) Mean.| YAS | WSRUESE. 
OFM, |) CI, |) Se, | Inches. 
June 13 | 36.1 | 31-8] 34.25 | 0.00 | Foggy. 
14 | 37-0] 32.0] 34.52 |. 0.21 | Cloudy. 
15 | 35-0 | 31-9] 33.75 | 0-12 | Foggy. 
16 | 35-2] 29.1] 32.41 | 0.00 | Foggy. 
17 | 36.9 | 29.0| 34.20] 0.00 | Foggy. 
18 | 45.2 | 30-9] 38.55 | 0.00 | Clear. 
19 | 41.5 | 35-1 | 38.94) 0.01 | Cloudy. 
20 | 38.9 | 33.0| 35.57) 0.05 | Cloudy. 
21 | 35.3 | 31-0] 33:52} 0.02 | Cloudy. 
The minimum temperature was be- 


low freezing seven days out of the nine 
required for germination. The maxi- 
mum was above 40° on only two days. 


GARDENING IN NorTHERN ALASKA 


‘The mean daily temperature, from 
hourly readings, ranged from 32°.41 
to 38°.94, the general average mean 
for the entire time being 35°.08. The 
total precipitation was 0.41 inches. 
The state of the weather was cloudy or 
foggy, excepting one day, when it was 
clear. Flurries of snow were not in- 
frequent. 

On July 10, twenty-seven days after 
seeding and nineteen days after germi- 
nation, harvesting began. ‘The lettuce 
leaves were from 1 to 2 inches in width 
and from 3 to 4inches in length. The 


radishes, spherical in form, were from: 


¥% tor inch in diameter. The condi- 
tion of these vegetables at the time of 
harvest was perfect. The quality could 
not be excelled by any grown anywhere 
in lower latitudes, Antarctica, by infer- 
ence, excepted. 


Table Showing Temperature, Precipitation, 
and Weather from Date of Germination to 
Flarvest. 


Temperature. ..| State 
Month. | Be of 
FE Max.| Min. |Mean| “*''°- |weather. 
| oF, | oF, | oF, Inches. 
June 22} 34.3 | 26.8 | 30.92| 0.01 | Cloudy 
23} || BA2 || BO | Buss lloooeooac Fair. 
PY Boe |) GXohaw | Bites oe caeuo Clear. 
25| 53-5 | 34.0 | 43.00| 0.00 | Fair. 
Ad)|| BS || BO || ECP |locssccde Cloudy 
27| 33-7 | 29.6 |32.27| 0.03 | Cloudy 
AS) || ZViLG) || POLS || B27) \l5 su oc00s Cloudy. 
29) 37:5 | 29.8 | 34.20] 0.00 | Cloudy. 
30| 40.6 | 32.0 |3514| 0.00 | Foggy. 
July 1] 43.4 | 32.2 | 39.10] 0.02 | Cloudy. 
2| 48.7 | 34.0] 42.18] 0.00 | Fair. 
3| 39:8 | 31 6 | 35.37] 0.03 | Cloudy. 
4| 41.2 | 32.2 | 37.72| 0.00 | Cloudy. 
5| 474] 33.2] 41.50| 0.00 | Fair. 
6} 46.7 | 39.8 | 43.97| 0.00 | Fair. 
7) 60.6 | 42.2 | 53.35] 0.00 | Clear. 
8| 490] 36.2 | 44.28] 0.00 | Clear. 
9| 43-4 | 29-8 | 35.98] 0.04 | Foggy. 
10} 55-2} 37-3 | 4651 | 9.00 Clear. 


During the nineteen days required for 
the crops to mature the minimum tem- 


35.7 


perature was 32° or below for nine days. 
The maximum temperature was 50° or 
above for three days only. ‘The mean 
daily temperature, from hourly observa- 
tions, ranged from 32°.92 to 53°.35, the 
general average mean for the entire time 
being 38°.16. ‘The total precipitation - 
was 0.13 inches. ‘here were 4 clear, 
5 fair, and 10 cloudy or foggy days. 

A study of the conditions under which 
the plants germinated and matured is 
not only curiously interesting, but sug- 
gests that there was some stimulating 
force—perhaps the large amount of at- 
mospherical electricity—which caused 
them to arrive at maturity in a much 
shorter period than those grown in tem- 
perate zones. Whatever the agency, 
inasmuch as the summer season is so 
very brief, it is absolutely necessary that 
plant life in the north should arrive at 
maturity very quickly in order to per- 
petuate the species. 

The vast tundras of northern Alaska 
are nature’s gardens—the most exten- 
sive, the least cultivated, the most pro- 
ductive of any on the American conti- 
nent. Every summer continuous beds 
of flowers on these level treeless areas 
extend north from the Arctic Circle to 
the shores of the ocean. ‘True, the 
flowering plants are lowly in stature, 
but they are not pitiful or frost pinched 
as might besupposed. True, they keep 
close to the frozen ground, as if in love 
with mother earth, but they display 
masses of color—yellow, purple, and 
blue—so bright as to make them visible 
at great distances ; and in the fall of the 
year their ripe foliage and the golden 
sunshine cause the tundras to fairly glow 
in rich colors—red, purple, and yellow— 
still further intensified by the varied 
colors of the ripening berries growing 
almost everywhere, all blending har- 
moniously with the neutral tints of the 
ground lichens and mosses, on which 
they seem to be painted. 


EXCAVATIONS At ABYDOS 


HE following letter from Prof. 
Flinders Petrie to the London 
| Times outlines his work at 
Abydos during the present year : 
To the Editor of the Zimes - 

Sir: The continuation of the work of 
the Egypt Exploration Fund at Abydos 
this year has given a wider view of the 
early civilization, of which the general 
lines had been fixed by the previous 
work on the Royal Tombsand the town. 
The clearance of the old temple site 
over several acres has brought to light, 
ina depth of about 20 feet, no less than 
ten successive temples ranging in age 
from about 5,000 to500 B. C. For the 
first time we can see on one spot the 
changes from age to age through the 
whole of Egyptian history. To separate 
these buildings was an affair of anatomy 
rather than spade work; the walls of 
mud brick were so commingled with 
the soil that incessant section-cutting 
with a sharp knife was the only way to 
discriminate the brickwork. Often only 
a single course of bricks or a thin bed 
of foundation sand was all that told of 
the great buildings which had existed 
here for centuries. Over 5,000 meas- 
urements were taken for the plans and 
levels. The main result as regards the 
religion is that Osiris was not the original 
god of Abydos ; the jackal god, Upuaut, 
and then the god of the West, Khenta- 
menti, were honored here down to the 
XIIth dynasty. The most striking 
change is seen about the IVth dynasty, 
when the temple was abolished, and 
only a great hearth of burnt offering is 
found, full of votive clay substitutes for 
sacrifices. This exactly agrees with 
the account of Herodotus that Cheops 
had closed the temples and forbidden 
sacrifices. ‘This materializing of history 
is made the more real by finding an 
ivory statuette of Cheops of the finest 
work, which shows for the first time 
the face and character of the great 


builder and organizer who made Egyp- 
tian government and civilization what 
it was for thousands of years after. 
This carving is now in the Cairo 
Museum. 

The discoveries of the civilization of 
the Ist dynasty, the beginning of the 
kingdom, expand what we already had 
from my work inthe Royal’Tombs. Of 
Menes, the founder, we have part of a 
large globular vase of green glaze with 
his name inlaid in purple; thus poly- 
chrome glazing is taken back thousands 
of years before it was previously known 
to exist. The free use of great tiles of 
glaze for wall coverings shows how usual 
the art wasthen. In the highest art of 
delicate ivory carving there are several 
pieces of this age; especially the figure 
of an aged king, for its subtlety and 
character, stands in the first rank of 
such work, comparable to the finest 
carvings of Greece or Italy. We must 
now reckon the earliest monarchy as 
the equal of any later age in such 
technical and fine art. 

Pottery of forms and material quite« 
unknown in Egypt also belongs to this 
remote age ; and it proves to be identi- 
cal with that in Crete of the late neo- 
lithicage. This fresh connection illus- 
trates the trade and the chronology of 
that period. A head of a camel mod- 
eled in pottery takes back its relation to 
Egypt some 4,000 years; hitherto no 
trace of it had appeared before Greek 
times. An ivory carving of a bear ex- 
tends also the fauna of early Egypt. 

The great fort long known as the 
Shunet ez Zebib is now connected with 
the remains of another fort, which was 
discovered between that and the Coptic 
Deir, which is in a third fort. These 
buildings prove, now to have been the 
fortified residences of the kings of the 
IId dynasty, whose sealings we have 
found in the dwelling-rooms. 

Of a later age may be noted some 


GeocraPHic Norss 


large decrees of the Vth and VIth 
dynasties, the oldest example of iron 
yet known, which is of the VIth dy- 
nasty, and in the XVIIIth dynasty a 
great memorial tablet of the grand- 
mother of that line, and the remains of 
a cliff temple of the type of Deir el 
Bahri. ‘These are but the salient points 
of a winter’s work of much historical 
interest. The collection will be ex- 
hibited as usual at University College, 
Gower street, from July 1 to 25. 
Unhappily, the growing lawlessness 
of Egypt, which Lord Cromer noticed 
in each of his recent reports, has affected 
our work, and ‘‘a large number of of- 
fenses, not very serious in themselves, 
but which cumulatively become serious, 
have been committed, and but too often 
have been committed with impunity ”’ 
(Report, 1902, p. 40). A statue was 
stolen from my house, and though the 
footprint of the thief exactly agreed 
with the very peculiar foot of one of 
the men who were notoriously accused 
in the village, and all the links were 
named by witnesses, yet no conviction 
could be obtained; £35 are said to 
have changed hands as bribes over this. 
Next, my workmen from Quft were 
subject to a general conspired assault in 
the market and each robbed of his 
money at once; but no redress whatever 
could be obtained. The police officer 
added to the injury by taking away one 
man who had been beaten to see the 
doctor, who did nothing but detain him 


$59) 


till he paid ros. bribe to be let go. Last 
year the relations of a man who died of 
fever were mulcted of 46 by another 
doctor, and on my complaining the off- 
cial inquiry resulted in giving an ac- 
count which was absurdly false, to my 
personal knowledge. 

It is impossible that the present ma- 
chinery can work to elicit the truth. 
Witnesses are examined by petty off- 
cers, who dictate the final statement of 
evidence at their own will, and the wit- 
nesses are summoned through their 


sheikh, who is the first man to be 
““squared’’ by the offenders, and 
“who, they think, will assuredly, 


sooner or later, endeavor to wreak his 
vengeance on them’’ (Report, p. 36). 
Such a system—dating long before the 
British occupation—is the most perfect 
for facilitating bribery and the suppres- 
sion of truth. This is not the place to 
discuss the remedies. Happily, Lord 
Cromer considers that ‘‘the points which 
most require attention are the police, 
the department of justice, and sanita- 
tion.’’ I do not. touch on more per- 
sonal threats to our party and being fired 
at, as I only wish here to refer to the 
failure of justice. But matters have 
gone so far that we must look for safety 
to our own resources rather than to the 
law, which has in each case proved to 
us useless. 
I remain your obedient servant, 
W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE. 
University College, June 22, 1903. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


FOREIGN COMMERCE OF THE UNITED 
STATES IN 1903 


HE foreign commerce of the United 
States in the fiscal year just ended 

is larger than in any preceding year in 
its history. ‘The total of imports and 
exports, as shown by the Department 
of Commerce and Labor through its 


Bureau of Statistics, is, for the year 
1903, $2,445,610,417, against $2,310,- 
937,156 in the year 1900, which was 
considered the banner year prior to 1903. 
Imports are larger than in any preceding 
year and exportsare larger than in any 
preceding year save in the exceptional 
year 1901. The imports for the first time 
erossed the billion-dollar line, the total 


360 


being $1,025,619,127, and the exports 
for the second time crossed the 1,400 
million line, being $1,419,991,290, or 
practically 1,420 millions. ‘The single 
year in which the value of exports ex- 
ceeded those of 1903 is the fiscal year 
1901, when the total was $1,487,764,991. 
The imports exceeded those of 1893 by 
about 159 million dollars and the ex- 
ports exceeded those of 1903 by about 
572 million dollars. The imports, there- 
fore, have increased 18.4 per cent during 
the decade and exports have increased 
67.5 per cent during the same period. 

The growth in importation, which is 
the most striking characteristic of the 
year’s commerce, is very largely in ma- 
terials for use in manufacturing. Only 
eleven months’ figures are yet available 
in such detailed form as to show the in- 
crease by great groups, but the figures 
of the eleven months ending with May 
show that articles in a crude condition 
for use in manufacturing increased 62 
million dollars, or about 20 per cent, 
as compared with the corresponding 
months of last year; articles partially 
manufactured for use in manufacturing 
increased 4 million dollars, or about 5 
per cent; articles manufactured and 
ready for consumption increased 18 mil- 
lion dollars, or about 13 per cent, and 
articles of voluntary use, luxuries, &c., 
increased 14 million dollars, or about 12 
per cent, while articles of food and live 
animals increased 15 million dollars, or 
about 8 per cent. 


WHITE POPULATION OF THE CHIEF 
BRITISH COLONIES 


R W. P. REEVES, in a recent 
issue of the London 7zmes, gives 

a careful estimate of the population of 
the principal British colonies, which is 
just now a matter of special interest. 
The figures given with regard to it by 
writers and speakers differ widely. 
This is not surprising, as most of the 


statements are based upon official re- 


THe NatrionaL GrocraPpHic MaGAZzINE 


turns published from two to twelve 
years ago. In thecase of Africa south 
of Zambesi, it is impossible to hope for 
exactness, and Mr Reeves has therefore 
given a figure slightly below what seems 
to him probably correct. The total— 
1I,075,000—will doubtless appear low 
to many British colonists, but not only 
aborigines, but Asiatics resident in the 
colonies, have been deducted. 


White Population in July, 1903 


Gana aie:s ajc oe bron pecertoregertele error 5,525,000 
PAUStralia) sNcisererelersiesvere spe tmetnlsievees 3,860,000 
SOUEHBAIH Case Ee ere renee erre 875,000 
New Zealand......... Sno OOOO 815,000 

otal). syste Micon T1,075,000 


For some little time past the average 
increase of whites in the British colonies 
has been at the rate of about 20,000 
per month. 


The Building of Dalny.—Russia, in the 
name of the Chinese Eastern Railway 
Company, is making tremendous prog- 
ress in building the great commercial 
city of Dalny, which has superseded Port 
Arthur. The Russian engineers, with 
20,000 Chinese laborers to carry out 
their plans, have already made 50 miles 
of streets, of which 12 miles are macad- 
amized; one good-sized dry dock has 
been built and another dry dock large 
enough for the largest steamers is nearly 
completed. Repair shops and foundries, 
tramways and electric power plants have 
been constructed. An enormous pier is 
nearly finished, which is to be 1,925 
feet long and 350 feet wide, and has a 
depth of water of from 18 to 28 feet and 
which will contain seven railway tracks 
and nine large warehouses. The present 
population of the city is over 42,000. 
The Bureau of Statistics of the Depart- 
ment of Commerce and Labor has pub- 
lished a comprehensive report on ‘‘ The 
Building of Dalny,’’ by the U. S. com- 
mercial agent at Dalny, M. M. Lang- 
horne (Advance Sheets of Consular Re- 
ports, July 28, 1903, No. 1708). 


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i) Vol. XIV OCTOBER, 1903 No. x0 
i CONTENTS 


NTHE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSANITY IN THE 
UNITED STATES. BY DR WILLIAM A, WHITE, SUPERIN- 
TENDENT GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL FOR THE INSANE, 
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Vor. XIV, No. 10 


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OcTOBER, 1903 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF 
PNSANIDTY IN THE UNITED STATES= 


By Dr Witiiam A. Waite, 


SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT HospiTaL For THE INSANE, 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 


HEN I was invited by the 
National Geographic Soci- 
ety to address the Society 


on the geographical distribution of in- 
sanity in the United States, my ideas 
on the subject were extremely chaotic. 
I had vague notions of the possibility 
of formulating laws that would express 
the relationship between insanity and 
latitude and longitude, temperature, 
precipitation, &c., and I felt that a 
diligent study of statistics would be re- 
warded by the emergence of such laws. 
Similar ideas, I think, would quite nat- 
urally occur to any scientific man not 
especially acquainted with the statis- 
tical study of sociological phenomena. 
Confronted at the outset by the fact 
that the proportion of insanity varies 
greatly in different regions of the United 
States, what more natural than to as- 
cribe such variations directly to the 
difference in man’s physical environ- 
ment in these localities ? 

From time immemorial variations in 


climate and in weather conditions have 
been supposed to produce profound 
effects upon man’s conduct, and such 
expressions as the ‘‘depressing effects 
of heat’’ and the ‘stimulating effects 
of cold’’ are common in our every-day 
conversation, and I believe that all of 
us have a more or less clearly defined 
idea that the physical and mental char- 
acteristics of the different races of men 
are to some extent an expression of the 
effects of the climatic and geographic 
conditions under which they live. This 
general conception was particularly 
fathered by that great English histo- 
rian, Henry Thomas Buckle, who, in 
the opening chapters of his ‘* History 
of Civilization in England’”’ traces in 
detail the effects of the four great phys- 
ical factors—climate, food, soil, and 
the general aspect of nature—upon the 
characters of individuals and upon the 
growth of races and the progress of 
civilization. 

There has consequently been fostered 


* Read before the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C., February 6, 1903. 


362 


a general tendency on the part of statis-- 


ticians and those engaged in the study 
of abnormal mental conditions, to follow 
along these lines with a view to estab- 
lishing relations of cause and effect. 

If I am not able to present to you 
such laws as I originally dreamt of, 
clothed in all the beauty of mathemat- 
ical formulee and demonstrating beyond 
doubt the precise effects of each cli- 
matic and geographic factor upon the 
prevalence of mental disease, I at least 
hope to be able to show why it is not 
possible to do so, and I feel assured 
that my results may be just as valuable 
as if it were. 

The social organism is extremely 
complex, and any effort to reason from 
the association of two or more condi- 
tions to the probable causative relations 
between them is always dangerous, and 
when figures are suborned for such 
purposes the results are notoriously 
inaccurate. With the elaborate means 
used of late years by the governments 
of ali civilized nations for the collection 


Tue Nationa GeocraPHic MaGaZInE 


of statistics, it is but natural that the 
figures obtained should be applied to 
all sorts of social conditions, and thus 
we are treated by the authorities to 
elaborate tables which show the month, 
day, and hour when suicide is most 
prevalent in a certain country, the sea- 
son of the year in which crimes of vio- 
lence reach their maximum, the effects 
of temperature, barometric pressure, 
humidity, wind velocity, and precipi- 
tation upon various phases of conduct, 
such as attendance at school, infrac- 
tious of discipline in prisons, clerical 
errors in banks, &c., &c. 

In view of all these facts, it is my 
function tonight to inquire whether the 
prevalence of insanity in the various 
regions of the United States can be 
shown to have any definite relation to 
any one or more of these environmental 
conditions; whether insanity is more 
prevalent at certain elevations above 
sea-level or between certain degrees of 
latitude; whether it prevails more espe- 
cially in regions of a certain average 


Outline Map No. I.—Ratio of Total Insane per 1co,ooo Population, Census 1880 


GEOGRAPHICAL DIsTRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


Outline Map No. II.—Number Population for Each Insane Person, Census 1880 


temperature and barometric pressure, 
or, on the other hand, where the mean 
humidity is high or low, and, further, 
if these conditions can not be shown to 
have a causative effect upon its distri- 
bution, what has? 

Let us start our inquiry by a study 
of a map of the United States upon 
each state and territory of which the 
ratio of insane to 100,000 population is 
indicated, in accordance with the census 
returns for 1880 (see outline maps Nos. 
Iand II). We are at once confronted 
with a condition of affairs which is so 
well marked that when I first saw it I 
was very much surprised. The great- 
est proportion of insanity is in the 
Northeast—in the New England and 
Middle States—of which New Hamp- 
shire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, and New York all have one in- 
sane person to less than 400 of the pop- 
ulation. If from this center of greatest 
prevalence of insanity we draw a line in 


any direction—West, South, or South- 
west—we see that no matter which way 
we go we find a steady decrease until 
we strike the Pacific slope. A slight 
interruption of the continuity of the 
decrease is noted in Michigan as we go 
west, but is, I think, of little conse- 
quence. As we go south along the 
coast Delaware appears as a marked 
exception. This is due to the fact that 
previous to the organization of the Dela- 
ware state hospital in 1889 no statistics 
of insanity were reliable. The insane 
were county charges and the care given 
them was so atrociously bad that every 
one took pains to conceal cases occur- 
ring in their families. Despite these 
minor variations the decrease of insan- 
ity as we go from the northeastern part 
of the United States—South, West, or 
Southwest—must strike you as being 
remarkably uniform and constant. ‘This 
uniform decrease only takes place if we 
start from this northeastern center. If, 


364 


for instance, we drop a line from any 
of the Northwestern States, as Idaho, 
Montana, or Minnesota, we find no uni- 
form results, and if we go South from 
the Dakotas we will find that the pro- 
portion of the insane actually increases. 
The notable increase when we strike 
the Pacific slope I will speak of later. 

If we now attempt to explain this 
condition of affairs by the topographical 
or the climatic conditions we are at once 
met by insuperable difficulties. If va- 
riation in temperature is alone responsi- 
ble, why does not the proportion of in- 
sane diminish as we go south from the 
Dakotas as well as from the New Eng- 
land States? Or, on the other hand, 
why should Maine have a smaller pro- 
portion of insane than any other New 
England State? Montana, which is as 
far north as Maine, has a higher ratio 
than the states immediately south of it. 
If meteorological conditions are deter- 
mining factors, why do we not find a 
marked variation in the proportion of 
the insane in the states bordering on 
the Great Lakes? Here we have con- 
ditions quite different from anywhere 
else in the United States. This region, 
a large area of which is occupied by 
these immense island seas, is directly in 
the course of the greater proportion of 
storms which come from the Northwest 
and pass through here on their way to 
the Atlantic coast ; sudden variations in 
temperature, barometric pressure, and 
wind velocity are the rule, and withthe 
immense areas of evaporation, fogs and 
rains are frequent and the percentage 
of cloudiness unusually high (66 per 
cent), still there is nothing in the pro- 
portion of the insane to call our special 
attention to this region. 

I might continue in this wise, but it 
is only necessary for me to call your 
attention to the general results of such 
reasoning. Theyarethese. The varia- 
tion in the proportion of insanity in the 
different states is regular and uniform, 
while both geographic and climatic con- 


THe NarionaL GeocraPpHic MaGAZINE 


ditions are not, but, on the contrary, 
differ greatly in different parts of the 
United States, as, for instance, in the 
region of the Great Lakes just men- 
tioned. If, therefore, we would explan 
these figures, we must seek a cause as 
uniform as its effects. This cause, or, 
more properly, these causes, are the 
same causes that make for civilization, 
the same that make for permanency and 
organization of social institutions, the 
same that make for concentration of 
population in great cities, the same, in 
short, that make for progress in its 
broadest sense. 

Before proceeding to the elucidation 
of this proposition, let us for a moment 
return to the consideration of some first 
principles. 

I did not intend to convey the idea by 
the remarks I just made about the in- 
fluence of climate on conduct that no 
such influence could be demonstrated. 
On the contrary, I think it can be, and 
in fact hasbeen. Dexter* has recently 
shown this in a most admirable and ex- 
haustive study of the effects of climate 
on different phases of conduct. For in- 
stance, his studies show that as humidity 
increases assaults, necessity for prison 
discipline, and the number of arrests for 
insanity decrease, while the data also 
show an increase in these same occur- 
rences when the barometer is low. 

Granting for the nonce that these 
various meteorological conditions could 
actually produce insanity, they could 
not account for the uniform variation of 
the proportion of the insane in the dif- 
ferent states to which I have called your 
attention. Weather changes are transi- 
tory, and conditions that are inimical to 
mental health are quickly followed by 
others that are highly beneficial. This 
is especially true of those regions of the 
United States where the proportion of 
insanity ishigh. The ratio of insane in 


* Edwin Grant Dexter, A. M.: Conduct and 
the Weather. Psych. Rev., Vol. II, No 10, 
May, 1899. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DIsTRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


the semi-tropical regions, which are 


relatively free from the sudden changes . 


of weather so common in the northeast- 
ern and northern central regions, is com- 
paratively low. If we turn to the 
seasonal influences the same criticism 
applies, though the changes take a some- 
what longer time. As regards climate 
and seasons, Berkley,“ an eminent 
American authority, says: ‘‘ These are 
factors of very minor importance in the 
evolution of insanity. The harmful 
effects of heat in the south are more 
than counterbalanced by the more prev- 
alent abuse of alcohol in colder regions. 
In a general insane asylum, where the 
middle and lower classes of the popula- 
tion are received, a study of the records 
will show that a larger number of admis- 
sions in one year may occur during the 
winter, whereas in other years the same 
holds good for the spring, summer, or 
autumn. Hence one is obliged to con- 
clude that the seasons have little to do 
with the evolution of insanity.’’ 

In the last analysis, however, the 
effects of all these agents which col- 
lectively I have spoken of as consti- 
tuting man’s physical environment 
upon his mind must be only secondary, 
mediate and not immediate. If we 
will study the effects of any one of 
them—for example, temperature, hu- 
midity, altitude—we will find them ex- 
pressed in terms of respiration, pulse 
rate, evaporation from the cutaneous 
surface, blood pressure, &c. —effects 
which I grant you are potent, but 
which, nevertheless, are not primarily 
mental. 

This whole matter reminds me very 
forcibly of the learned judge who could 
not understand why the expert called 
upon to testify as to the mental condi- 
tion of the defendant should have meas- 
ured his feet. The medical profession 
have been largely responsible for this 


*Henry J. Berkley. Insanity : General Eti- 
ology, Reference Handbook of the Medical 
Sciences, Vol. V. 


365 


conception, especially our misguided 
friend, the gynecologist. This gentle- 
man has insisted that all forms what- 
soever of mental disease affecting the 
female were traceable to an affection 
of the uterus or its appendages, and has 
devised all manner of operations to re- 
lieve such conditions. ‘True, the insane 
female who may have a local pelvic con- 
dition which is amenable to surgical in- 
terference is just as much entitled to 
the relief that can be obtained from that 
source as her more fortunate sister, and 
it is quite conceivable that the relief 
of a local condition which was painful 
or debilitating by reason of frequent 
hemorrhages, or other cause, would 
place the organism in a better condition 
to rally from any abnormal state. But 
the sort of stuff that mind is made of is 
not to be found in the abdominal cavity. 

This brings us again to the basis of 
our argument. If we are to seek for 
an adequate cause to explain the con- 
ditions to which I have directed your 
attention, we must seek for a mental 
cause, not a physical one. 

If we look back over organic nature 
we shall see that in the progress of evo- 
lution the nervous system has come to 
play a progressively more and more im- 
portant part until we get to the higher 
animals—the vertebrates—in which the 
brain comes to be of paramount im- 
portance. 

Still, in the lower races of men, al- 
though the brain is of such great im- 
portance in the struggle for existence, 
that struggle is, after all, in the main 
and relatively a physical struggle ; it 
consists largely of collecting food which 
is often ready at hand in the tropics, of 
pursuing and killing game, and often 
of personal encounters with his fellow- 
man, asa result of which the conquered 
is killed or reduced to slavery. When 
we get to civilized man, however, the 
picture is different. Here the struggle 
for existence has become an essentially 
mental struggle, and success is a func- 


366 


tion of intellectual capacity. I can in 


no better way illustrate the severity of- 


this struggle than by calling your atten- 
tion to the fact that it takes twenty-five 
years of preparation nowadays before a 
young man is considered equipped to 
cope with his fellows. 

The brain then becomes, as it were, 
the storm center inthe organism. Here, 
in the habitation of the mind, do all the 
problems of subsistence meet their solu- 
tion, and here also do all those mighty 
emotions which ever and anon stir the 
soul take their origin. It is here in the 
brain that vaunted ambition hasitssway, 
and here that the sweet pains of love 
tune one soul in harmony with another. 

The mind, delicately adjusted as it is 
to its environment, responding as it does 
to the slightest changes therein, occu- 
pies a dangerous position and becomes 
at once liable to great stress and to 
the multiplicity of disorders that result 
therefrom. ‘The savage in his simplicity 
does not know what it is to suffer from 
the cares and worries which are the 
daily portion of the average European, 
and it is little wonder that the latter, 
beset by all manner of disappointments 
and vexations, should more frequently 
break down in mind than his less-gifted 
brother. 

If you have followed me thus far, 
you will note that in my attempt to ac- 
count for the geographical distribution 
of insanity in the United States I have 
discarded the influences of the physical 
environment as being efficient causes 
because of their indirectness, and have 
appealed to the immediate results of 
mental stress, the results of the contact 
of man with man in the struggle for ex- 
istence; in short, the results of that 
struggle itself as exemplified in civili- 
zation. 

If my contention is true, that insanity 
is the result of the stresses incident to 
the progressive civilized state, it must 
be possible to educe further proof of this 
by a study of some of the phenomena 


Tue Natronat GrocGRAPHic MaGAZINE 


that accompany civilization. We would 
thus expect to find that in those locali- 
ties where civilization was furthest ad- 
vanced, where the social institutions 
were stable, where class distinctions had 
crystallized—in short, where the stresses 
of intellectual life were greatest—the 
proportion of insanity was highest. Let 
us see if this is so. 

One of the most marked results of 
civilization is the concentration of popu- 
lation in certain areas. Let us study 
this condition in the United States with 
reference to the distribution of insanity. 
The census for 1890 shows that for the 
different regions of the United States 
the population per square mile is as 
follows : ; 


North Atlantic Division..-.........-: 107-37 
South!) Atlantic Division. === 02-- ss 6ee 32.98 
North Central Divisionies-- see eee cree 29.68 
SouthCentral Divisions, 22. Sasseeee 18 94 
Western’ Divisione ee. eee eee ne ree 2.58 


The North Atlantic Division, com- 
prising the New England States, with 
New York, New Jersey, and Pennsyl- 
vania, has more than three times the 
number of inhabitants per square mile 
of any of the other divisions—in fact, 
more than all the rest put together. Of 
these states, Rhode Island, the smallest, 
has the greatest density of population, 
with 318.44 to the square mile; then 
comes Massachusetts with 278.48, Con- 
necticut with 154.03, and down the 
coast, New York with 125.95, New Jer- 
sey with 193.82, and Pennsylvania with 
116.88. From this center of density the 
proportion of inhabitants to the square 
mile diminishes regularly in every direc- 
tion. If we gosouth, we find Maryland 
with ro5 and Delaware with 86 per 
square mile, until in the extreme south 
we find but 30 or 40. Westward from 
Pennsylvania, however, we find a belt 
bordering the Ohio River, containing 
Ohio with 90, Indiana with 61, and IIli- 
nois with 68 per square mile, and from 
here the diminution is rapid to Louisi- 
ana with but 24, Minnesota with only 


GEOGRAPHICAL DisTRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


16, and the extreme West, where the 
proportion is less than r. 

Here, you see, we have an almost 
exact parallel with the distribution of 
insanity. 

Closely connected with this peculiar- 
ity of civilized communities to concen- 
trate in certain areas—in fact, a part of 
the same phenomena—is the growth of 
great cities. The Eleventh Census 
shows that the percentage of the popu- 
lation of the United States living in 
cities of 8,000 or more inhabitants for 
the different regions was as follows: 


North Atlantic Division............... 51.58 
Worth Central Division...............- 25.91 
South Atlantic Division............... 16.03 
South CentraleOivisions senses. 0so+ + 10.45 
MEStenm OD iwvASiONA ani. Fics ccceclence 29.99 


Here again we see the same parallel- 
ism between the degree of manifestation 
of a phenomena of civilization and the 
proportion of insanity. The North At- 
lantic Division contains almost twice 
the percentage of urban population of 


BOF 


any of the other divisions, and here, as 
we know, we find the highest percent- 
age of insane. 

If we calculate the proportion of in- 
sane per 100,000 in all cities of the 
United States containing 50,000 or more 
inhabitants, we will find that in 1880 
the ratio was 231.6 as against 183.3 for 
the whole country, while in 1890 the 
ratio was 242.7 aS against 170 for the 
whole country. Thus we find that the 
ratio of insane in cities of this size has 
not only increased in the decade from 
1880 to 1890, but that the ratio for the 
whole country has decreased. It is 
also significant that, while in 1880 there 
were only 35 cities containing 50,000 or 
more inhabitants, in 1890 there were 58 
such cities. We further find that of 
these 58 cities 26, or nearly one-half, 
are located in the North Atlantic Divis- 
ion. Of these 26, 6 are in Massachu- 
setts, 7 in New York, 5 in New Jersey, 
5 in Pennsylvania, 2 in Connecticut, 1 
in Rhode Island, and none in Maine, 


Outline Map No. III.—Location of Cities Having a Population of 50,000 or More, 
Census 1890 


Tue Narionat GEoGRAPHIC 


MaGaZIneE 


104.4 


Outline Map No. IV.—Ratio of Total Insane per 100,000 Population, Census 1890 


New Hampshire, and Vermont, so that 
our findings thus far are still further 
harmonized by these additional facts, 
for the density of population in Maine, 
New Hampshire, and Vermont is very 
much lower than for the other states in 
this region. (See outline map No. III.) 

If, now, we study the movement of 
population during the past century we 
meet again the same confirmation for 
our views. *Mayo-Smith makes the 
statement that in 1790, 95 per cent of 
the population were on the Atlantic sea- 
board, with an average depth of settle- 
ment at right angles to the coast of only 
255 miles. ‘The stream of population 
spread westward along three lines—one 
the valley of the Mohawk, one from Vir- 
ginia southwest into Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee by way of the Appalachian Val- 
ley, and one over the Alleghenies to the 
Ohio River. This latter course was the 


* Richmond Mayo-Smith, ‘‘ Statistics and So- 
ciology.” 


principal one, and from the junction of 
the Ohio with the Mississippi we find 
further westward migration occurring 
along the valleys of the Missouri, Ar- 
kansas, and Red Rivers. This course 
of the westward spread of population 
has been maintained, for, though river 
valleys furnish the natural highways 
for migration, when railroads come to 
be built they are built in the valleys, 
and the general course of events is not 
materially changed thereby. 

See how closely these facts correspond 
with the distribution of insanity. From 
the northeastern coast states—Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut, New York, and 
New Jersey—there is a progressive de- 
crease southward along the Atlantic 
coast. There is also a decrease as we 
go southwest along the Appalachian 
Valley; but we find the ratio of insane 
continues high in the Virginias, Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina, 
and does not show a marked falling off 


GEOGRAPHICAL DisTRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


until we get south of these states. Sim- 
ilarly, if we follow the Ohio Valley we 
find the ratio of insane continues large 
in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. (See 
outline map No. IV.) 

We still have, however, some high 
Tatios unaccounted for, viz., Missouri 
and Iowa west, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
and Minnesota north. All these states 
are in the North Central Division. Let 
us compare the different divisions of the 
United States on the basis of their re- 
Spective increases in population during 


the decade from 1880 to1890. ‘The fig- 
ures are as follows: 
North Central Division ........... 4,878,928 


North Atlantic Division 2,984,480 


South Central Division....... .... 1,985,657 
South Atlantic Division... . 1,204,999 
\WiESEA IDAHO, sso550 couse woe 1,129,641 


Thus we see that the increase in popu- 
lation has been by far the most rapid 
in the North Central Division. This 
territory has increased approximately 
2,000,000 inhabitants more than any 
other. Let us uow turn to the individ- 
ual states and see what the figuresshow. 
The statesin the North Central Division 
which have increased in population the 
most are in the order of their increase: 


TUAO BOR So pease Se at Si he oe eee 7,62 

NGA logs aelige Oats Ue Ses bee ee 
WWEITITTeSOtamem yn nie etree eines 519,069 
DMISSOUTIME Rn cen mea ota 510,262 
Oliv. cecasaccgabooooSOuBHane waueee 473,856 
NVING TO attr sey hou yeccevtin ee cclerelonns 451,170 
ISBITEE SS 656.0 ng coo Bat EE rE ene 430, 167 
RIISCONSIN Reece Rev ce eemon sor an 367,420 
MONE os dg be hale GIES BLEED 287,156 


The only other states in the Union 
that have increased at any such rate as 
this are: 


ING WEVOLICe ny yea Merino sais gnc vaio ee 911,173 
eva ELSE Vepraciaveyscisitericisterscn javenctatel sie 313,103 
OTT) NERVES cog BECO esa roe 972,962 
MESSAGHIISCLIS nen erry tticrioe: ied 545432 
“WSHES Soe gS Oto tO ODODE Seer ee eee 642,357 
PAGIKANISAS | iee cs ve dolomdtadirao oo sete 
CROP CHa BB OOe BRCoE DEE eee eee 294,992 
RWVASHISTL LOM evel ofarore ies) syeie ole atsle.dvebele re 266,999 
OTREEGIN SECS RSS ORCA Seine IES 255, 300 


369 


The significance of these figures seems 
to me quite evident. They show that 
the stream of population has continued 
west of the Mississippi, and the high 
ratio of insanity in Iowa and Missouri is 
therefore accounted for, as these states 
both adjoin Illinois, the western limit 
of the Ohio Valley lying merely on the 
other side-of the Mississippi River. You 
will see also that we have incidentally 
thrown light on the high ratios north. 
In the three states in this region— Micht- 
gan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—there 
has been an increase in population in the 
ten years from 1880 to 1890 of one and 
one-third millions. 

Of all these states Nebraska alone 
seems to be somewhat exceptional. A1- 
though its population has increased rap- 
idly its ratio of insanity is rather lower 
than we would expect from comparing 
it with those states where the increase 
has been correspondingly marked. Of 
these states Kansas is the only one as far 
west as Nebraska, and Kansas has a 
ratio of 125.7 per 100,000, while Ne- 
braska has but 88. It is significant in 
this connection that Kansas is more di- 
rectly in the line of traffic from east to 
west, and a glance at any recent map of 
the United States will show that many 
more railroads course through it than 
do through Nebraska. As both of these 
states are in the main agricultural, the 
higher ratio of insanity in Kansas would 
seem tome to be the result of the de- 
generate dribble from the great railroad 
lines as they pass west from the con- 
gested centers of population in the East. 

The only reports of the railway mile- 
age in these two states I have been able 
to obtain are one under date of 1893, 
which shows Kansas to have 8,900 
miles of railroads, thus making it the 
second state in the Union in this re- 
spect, and one a year later in 1894, 
shows Nebraska to have but 5,529.22 
miles of railroads. 

It would seem, therefore, that my 
contention that insanity increases in 


37S 


proportion as the stresses incident to 
the struggle for existence become men- 
tal stresses is borne out by the facts. 
The frontiersman who takes his family 
and goes west to open up new territory, 
engage in legitimate agricultural pur- 
suits, and grow up with the country is 
pretty apt to be of hardy stock, and in- 
sanity, if it appears at all, comes in 
later generations. © It is different, how- 
ever, with those states that have great 
mineral wealth. Here the attraction 
appeals to all the wandering, unsettled, 
rifraff of the country, who hasten to the 
newly discovered fields in the hope of 
acquiring a fortune quickly. Arrived 
there they yield to all the seductions of 
intemperance ; vice and disease wreak 
their ravages upon a predisposed soil, 
and our ratios show a corresponding in- 
crease. ‘This is the situation with Cali- 
fornia. This state, and to a somewhat 
less extent the whole Pacific coast, is 
still suffering from the effects of the 
““ gold fever’’ of ’49, and its citizens 
are paying the price even ‘‘unto the 
third and fourth generations.’’ In this 
connection it is interesting and signifi- 
cant to note that the mining states and 
the states of the Pacific slope, viz, 
Montana, Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, 
Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and Cali- 
fornia, all show a much greater number 
of male than female insane, a condi- 
tion that prevails nowhere else in the 
country, with the single exception of 
Minnesota, and it has arisen here al- 
most wholly in the decade from 1880 to 
1890, during which period the state has 
increased in population over half a 
million. Minnesota also has large 
lumbering interests, and conditions in a 
lumbering region are similar to those in 
a mining region. In the normal order 
of things we expect to find a slightly 
higher percentage of insanity in the 
female sex, but the ‘‘ get-rich-quick ”’ 
fever attracts more men than women 
and mining districts as a rule are defi- 
cient in their proportion of women. 


Vue Natrona, GrocraPpHic MaGaZziInEe 


This state of affairs has apparently not 
yet been recovered from in California. 
We must also remember with reference 
to California in particular that it is a 
coast state and suffers from the effects of 
immigration, and that the percentage of 
insanity is invariably higher in the for- 
eign born than in the native population. 

This law of the increase of insanity 
in the oldest settled districts and its de- 
crease in the newly settled districts is. 
well stated by A. O. Wright in the Pro- 
ceedings of the National Conference of 
Charities and Correction, in 1884. He 
says: ‘‘A very powerful cause for the 
increase of insanity in this country was, 
so far as I know, first pointed out by 
the writer in 1881, before the census of 
1880 had been tabulated, in the Annual 
Report of the Wisconsin State Board of 
Charities and Reform, and was stated 
in debate at the National Conference of 
Charities and Correction, at Madison, 
in 1882. Having made a census of the 
insane under public care in Wisconsin, 
the writer, on reducing the number by 
counties to the ratio to the population 
of the several counties, was astonished 
to find here a general law: That the 
older settled counties had the largest 
ratioof insane tothe population, and that 
the ratio steadily decreased and reached 
the smallest ratio in the pioneer counties: 
onthe north. Thisseemed to show that. 
a new country has a smaller proportion. 
of insanity than an old country. 

“When the Compendium of the Census. 
of 1880 was published, the writer, from 
the numbers given then, immediately 
calculated the ratios to the population 
and arranged the states and territories. 
geographically instead of alphabetic- 
ally.’’ From the figures thus obtained 
he concludes that allowing 
for exceptional cases, the proportion of 
insanity decreases as you go toward the 
newer settled states, from about one im 
every 350 of the population in Massa- 
chusetts to about one in 1900 in Colo- 
rado.”’ 


Se ke 
OSS spe es 


GEOGRAPHICAL DIsTRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


Wright, however, does not go into 
details nor discuss the causes that have 
led to this condition of affairs, except 
to say: ‘‘ The reason of this I think to 
be that new settlements are made by a 
selected population, mostly young and 
middle aged people of sound minds and 
bodies. ‘The insane are left behind, as 
are also those people of bad organiza- 
tions, from whose numbers the most of 
the insane will come. ‘The new coun- 
tries therefore have a small proportion 
of insanity at the start, and furnish a 
small proportion of insanity in the first 
generation. 

“The only exception to this is in the 
case of the Pacific slope and a few other 
localities, where masses of homeless 
men, with few women and children, 
have gone in search of work or wealth ; 
where the vices of drunkenness and 
licentiousness, with the irregularities 
and the hardships of life in mining or 
lumbering camps, and the excessive 
fluctuations of fortune, have caused an 
excess of insanity. In these cases it is, 
however, to be remembered that this is 
a disease of mature life; and if we add 
the proper proportion of children who 
would be found in an ordinary commu- 
nity, and who rarely have insanity, we 
should at once halve the ratio of in- 
sanity in such communities. 

‘* But, in ordinary settlements, where 
the settlers found homes and live under 
the ordinary conditions of life, the ratio 
of insanity in the first generation is 
small, because they are, as_ the insur- 
ance men would say, ‘selected lives.’ 
In the second generation all the com- 
plex and varied causes which produce 
insanity have been at work; and the 
second generation has a much greater 
ratio of insanity than the first, and so 
on for several generations, when the 
balance is restored and the regular rate 
of insanity is reached.’’ 

After all this, however, Wright says: 
“Tt is often claimed that insanity is a 
disease of civilization, and that it is in- 


ae 


creasing because civilization is increas- 
ing. This I think to be a mistake.’’ 
Although this is not a very happy way 
to express it, it seems to me that our 
figures prove just that, or rather if they 
do not prove that insanity is the neces- 
sary result of civilization, they at least 
prove that the civilized state offers those 
conditions in greater number which 
bring it about, and so if the connection 
be not one of necessity, it is at least 
one of fact. Instead, therefore, of at- 
tempting to account for insanity by 
altitude, temperature, and the various 
other elements of the physical environ- 
ment, we should only consider these 
factors as important because of their 
influence in creating conditions favor- 
able to the growth and concentration of 
population and the evolution of the 
social organism. Even here this influ- 
ence is often secondary or accidental. 
As regards this whole matter of the 
influence of the physical environment 
on population, I can do no better than 
quote Mayo-Smith,* who, in answer to 
the question, ‘‘ How far can the statis- 
tics of distribution be said to contribute 
an answer to the question of the influ- 
ence of physical environment upon pop- 
ulation ?’’ says: 

“*Statistics show us, in a large way 
and on a grand scale, the general influ- 
ence of land, climate, and natural forces 
upon population. ‘The plains attract, 
the mountains repel. Cold regions are 
unpopulated. Moist and warm climates 
are fatal to human life. Commercial 
position attracts cities. Navigable riv- 
ers are natural highways, and are util- 
ized in the migrations of the human 
race. An indented seacoast is favor- 
able to settlement and colonization. 
Statistics confirm the general observa- 
tions of history. Levasseur, after along 
survey of the topography of France and 
the history of its population, says that 
at all periods Paris has been the attract- 
ive pole and the mountainous region of 

* Tbid. 


3] 2 


south France the repulsive pole of pop- 
ulation. 

‘“But it is absurd to seek by statistics 
a direct mathematical relation between 
population and land. The population 
of a country is not dense exactly in 
accordance with its topography. Plains 
do not always have a dense population, 
and mountains are not always barren. 
Population does not increase or decrease 
regularly according to distance from a 
certain parallel of latitude or longitude. 
There is no direct proportion between 
the degrees of temperature or inches of 
rainfall and the number of inhabitants 
in a certain district. In this respect 
many of the statistics distributing popu- 
lation according to topographical feat- 
ures or natural relations, such as those 
of the Tenth and Eleventh Census of the 
United States, are the merest vanity. 
One searches in vain in these elaborate 
tables for any illumination. Such in- 
fluences are not direct, but indirect. 
Altitude, temperature, rainfall, influence 
population because they affect the eco- 
nomic resources necessary for popula- 
* tion. We must always remember that 
economy is the basis of social organiza- 
tion. The economic is the fundamental 
side of civilization. Natural forces con- 
trol human life inthisway. Statistics, 
by showing the distribution of popula- 
tion, discloses the harmony between 
population and nature, which is medi- 
ated by economic relations, and these 
are on the one side the result of natural 
forces, and on the other the conditions 
of human existence. 

““We must also remember, in studying 
the distribution of population, that there 
arecommonly many influences at work— 
some of them economic, others historical 
and political—and that it is often ex- 
tremely difficult to disentangle them. 
We ought, therefore, to expect from 
statistics not exact data, but only general 
indications of the influence of natural 
forces. The density of population in 
England, for example, is due partly to 


Tue Nationa GeocraPHic MaGaZingE 


the richness of its soil, partly to its 
mineral resources, and partly to its com- 
mercial advantages ; but it is due also 
in part to its insular position, which 
has given it peace and stable govern- 
ment for generations, and to the energy 
and enterprise of its inhabitants, which 
have made the little island the center of 
a world empire. It is impossible for 
statistics to disentangle these different 
influences. It can only confirm the ob- 
servations of history. Who could ex- 
plain that oasis of population in the 
great western plain of the United States 
called Utah, if he did not know the 
history of the Mormons? Why should 
the sterile mountain tops of Nevada be 
populated ? might be asked by one who 
did not know the history of gold and 
silver mining. The coast swamps of 
the United States would probably be 
uninhabited did not the population of 
the United States include a large propor- 
tion of negroes, who are proof against - 
pestilential fevers. Race explains in this 
case what physical geography would 
leave inexplicable. 

‘* Rinally, we must remember that all 
these natural influences are much more 
powerful over primitive than over civil- 
izedman. AsSpencersays, ‘ The ear- 
lier stages of social evolution are far 
more dependent on local conditions than 
the later stages. "Those societies such 
as we are most familiar with, highly 
organized, rich in appliances, advanced 
in knowledge, can, by the help of various 
artifices, thrive in unfavorable habitats; 
yet feeble, unorganized societies cannot 
do so; they are at the mercy of their 
natural surroundings.’ Spencer finds 
here also the explanation of the fact 
that so many tribes of savages have 
made no manifest progress during the 
long period over which human records 
extend. Statistics observes man only 
in an advanced state of civilization, 
when he has been able to free himself 
to a certain extent from the influence 
of natural forces, or at least to neutral- 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


ize them. By clothing and improved 
shelter man habituates himself to al- 
most any climate, and by sanitary 
knowledge he makes places formerly 
uninhabitable safe for human life. In 
pursuit of wealth, of political independ- 
ence, of religious freedom, he will risk 
exposures which would seem to be en- 
tirely unnecessary. By improved meth- 
ods of agriculture man often renders 
districts formerly uninhabited, or at 
best only sparsely settled, capable of 
sustaining large populations. In early 
times regions covered with forests are 
thinly inhabited. Civilized man cuts 
down the forests and turns the land into 
arable fields. Lowlands, which in early 
times were at the mercy of the sea or 
uninhabitable on account of fevers, civ- 
ilized man, by canals and dikes, renders 
fertile plains. So also by means of 
fertilizers, by rotation of crops, by im- 
proved ploughing, by the use of ma- 
chinery, sometimes by irrigation, dry 
and sterile plains are made productive. 
Even from year to year changes in ag- 
riculture or in the prices of agricultural 
crops may render it expedient to change 
arable land into pasture, or pasture land 
into arable, and either process, if con- 
tinued, must influence the population- 
supporting capacity of the country. An 
example of this is seen in the changing 
of arable land to pasture in Ireland and 
the turning of little farms into game 
preserves in Scotland. 

“Tn the civilizedstate man often makes 
use of a country without any reference 
to its agricultural capacities. Heseeks 
the minerals under the soil either for 
his own consumption or for export; he 
turns clay into pottery ; he utilizes 
water power for his factories; he seeks 
barren coasts for fishing or gathering 
sea weed ; he establishes trading posts 
in the desert or in unhealthy localities— 
in other words, he seeks his gain with- 
out reference to climate or soil. In 
modern times the improved means of 
transportation have still further in- 


S78 


creased man’s command over nature. 
He is no longer held to rivers and valleys 
as natural highways, but can seek the 
quickest and most direct route. Cheap- 
ness of transportation gives him com- 
mand over the resources of the world. 
In this way he can carry on the work 
of production in any place he likes, 
without regard to its food-producing 
capacity. The people of England im- 
port three-fourths of the bread they eat. 
‘This hasthe effect of enabling man tocon- 
centrate his efforts in places most favor- 
able to the production of the kind of 
wealth which is demanded. It enables 
him also to choose climates favorable to 
his health, as the English seek the Med- 
iterranean, or consumptives of the East 
seek the dry air of Colorado. Man’s 
intellectual and emotional desires lead 
him to seek large cities, and this he is 
enabled to do by the fact that he can 
carry on his occupation independent of 
the food supply. This is especially true 
of occupations demanding intellectual 
effort. 

‘Tt will be seen, therefore, from all 
these considerations, that man is still 
subject to the environment; but the de- 
velopment of his power over nature 
has rendered the cord which binds him 
down more elastic. He is still subject 
to nature, but has at the same time, toa 
certain extent at least, subjected her.’’ 

Thus far my lecture has dealt with— 

First. ‘The untenability of any hy- 
pothesis founded solely upon climatic, 
meteorologic, or topographic conditions 
to explain the facts of the distribution 
of insanity in the United States. 

Second. The necessity of assuming 
primarily a mental cause to explain 
these facts and the nature of that cause, 
viz., the mental stresses incident to the 
progressive civilized state. 

Now, as a Zhird line of argument I 
will take up the discussion of certain 
collateral evidence—that is, evidence 
taken along other but related lines and 
leading to the same conclusion. 


374 


Suppose we first examine into the sta- 
tistics of suicide. Morselliin his admir- 
able work on that subject comes to the 
conclusion that those sections of Europe 
show the highest percentage of suicide 
where the Teutonic element is predom- 
inant. Ripley in his excellent work, 

‘ The Races in Europe,’’ has examined 
this proposition critically and with very 
interesting results. . 

If, for instance, France is studied we 
will find the greater proportion of sui- 
cides in the aor, where the Germanic 
race is represented in greatest numbers; 
similarly we find here also the highest 
divorce rate; but, more remarkable still, 
we find evidences of the highest degree 
of culture. In this same region the 
greatest number of artists were born to 
whom were granted awards by the Paris 
Salon, and here also were born the 
highest ratio of men of letters. If now 
Italy be similarly studied we find that 
its different regions are distinguished 
in much the same way as they are in 
France by a preponderance of certain 
phenomena in certain localities. In 
comparing the two countries, Ripley 
closes his criticism by saying: ‘‘ The 
effect has been to emphasize once more 
the enormous preponderance of artistic 
genius all through the north, from 
Tuscany to the Alps. How does this 
coincide with our previous deduction 
concerning France? It seems, perhaps, 
to corroborate the relation of Teutonism 
to art, until we secure the fact that all 
northern Italy is overwhelmingly Alpine 
by race as compared with the artistically 
sterilesouth. Couple with this the fact 
that in reality Teutonism is a negligible 
factor in Italy, physically speaking, and 
that precisely the same ethnic type which 
is so fecund culturally in Italy is in 
France the one localized wherever art 
is not and all doubt as to the predom- 
inant cause of the phenomenon is dis- 
sipated. Wesee immediately that the 
artistic fruitfulness in either case is the 
concomitant and derivative product of 


THe Narionat GeocraepHic MAGAZINE 


a highly developed center of population. 
Contact of mind with mind is the real 
cause of the phenomena. It is not race 
but the physical and social environment 
which must be taken into account.’’ 

Morselli himself recognized this fact, 
for he not only reaches the conclusion 
that ‘‘it is those countries which pos- 
sess a higher standard of general cul- 
ture which furnish the largest contin- 
gent of voluntary deaths,’’ and ‘‘ The 
proportion of suicides in all Europe is 
greater amongst the condensed popula- 
tion of urban centers than amongst the 
more scattered inhabitants of the coun- 
try ;’’ but in concluding his work he 
sums up the whole matter in the follow- 
ing words: ““* * * whoever has 
followed us in the long analytical course 
which we have pursued ought now to 
be convinced of the connection between 
competition and social evolution and 
the inclination towards suicide. Suicide 
increases amongst people according to 
their degree of civilization, not so much 
because in the high development of the 
cerebral organism the needs which must 
be satisfied increase as because the brain 
shares more largely in the struggle.”’ 

I need only call your attention to the 
frequent association of suicide with act- 
ual insanity, or at least with an abnor- 
mal mental condition, for you to see the 
bearing of these results on the problem 
in hand. 

Pauperism is another allied condition 
to which I would direct your attention. 
The census of 1880 shows that there 
were then 66, 203 paupers in the several 
almshouses of the country. Now, pau- 
perism is to an extent a symptom of 
mental defect. The individual who, 
unless absolutely incapacitated by phys- 
ical disability, so far fails in the struggle 
for existence that he must be supported 
at the public expense is certainly suffer- 
ing from some form of mental defect. 
F. H. Wines, the special agent of the 
Census Office for the collection of the 
statistics of the defective, dependent, 


GEOGRAPHICAL DisTRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


and delinquent classes at the Tenth 
Census, says about pauperism: ‘‘ The 
law which governs the distribution of 
pauperism in the United States (and 
which, we believe, has not been sus- 
pected by any student of the subject— 
at least I have never seen any reference 
to it) is brought out as clearly by the 
census of 1850 as by that of 1880, and 
it is confirmed by every census that has 
been taken. This law is as follows: 
The ratio of paupers to the total popu- 
lation diminishes alike from north to 
south and from east to west. In other 
words, 1f New England, or the princi- 
pal New England state (Massachusetts), 
be taken as a starting point, it matters 
not in which direction a line be drawn, 
the largest amount of pauperism rela- 
tively to the population will be found 
to exist in Massachusetts, and the 


smallest in the state farthest removed 
from Massachusetts, while the interven- 
ing states will exhibit, on the whole 
and with scarcely an exception, a grad- 
ual decline in something like the degree 


SJ) 


of their removal from the extreme 
northeast.’’ As clearly as Mr. Wines 
defines this law, it is rather strange 
that he did not discover the practically 
identical condition relative to the in- 
sane. 

We have one other state of affairs in 
the United States that is worth while 
looking into. Irefer to our large negro 
population. The ratio of insanity in the 
negro population is smaller than in the 
white population, being as 1 to 1,069 in 
the former and 1 to 505 in the latter 
(Census 1880). Although this is so, it 
is generally admitted that the percent- 
age of insanity has been gradually in- 
creasing since the Civil War. Berkley * 
says on this point: ‘‘ Before the Civil 
War there were few or no psychoses 
among them, and such organic degen- 
erative diseases as syphilitic insanity and 
dementia paralytica were practically un- 
known. ‘Today in communities where 
many are collected, as in Washington 
or Baltimore, the percentage of insane 

* Tbid. 


Outline Map No. V.—White Insane Only, Census 1880 


B7O 


Tue Natrona, GrocrapHic MaGazIne 


Outline Map No. VI.—Number Colored Population for Each Colored Insane, 
Census 1880 


negroes, not to mention idiots and im- 
beciles, is already fully up to that of the 
Caucasian races, with whom they are 
associated, and bids fair to surpass it.’’ 

* «<The negro has been thrown upon 
his own physical and mental resources 
and has entered the strife for existence 
as an inferior; he is syphilized, alco- 
holized, his food is ofttimes unsuitable, 
* * %* his surroundings are usually 
unhygienic, and tuberculosis finds in 
him an easy prey. No wonder it is that 
under these circumstances we have in 
our asylums an ever-increasing number 
of idiots, of imbeciles, and of alltypes of 
the dementias from the colored race.’’ 

There are, however, some extremely 
interesting facts relative to this in- 
crease. The percentage of colored in- 
sane increases rapidly as we leave the 

* A Treatise on Mental Diseases. 


Ratio for United States miuus Southern States. 


1,277 
542 


natural home of the negro and go in any 
direction. In other words, as soon as 
the negro goes North and enters into 
active competition with the white, who 
is mentally his superior, he succumbs to 
the unequal struggle. So in Georgia, 
where we find the greatest number of 
negroes, there was I insane negro to 
1,764 of the colored population in 1880, 
while in New York the ratio was 1 to 
333, or almost exactly the same ratio 
as for the white population. (See out- 
line maps Nos. V, VI.) 

Then, again, if we take the Southern 
States alone, viz., Alabama, Arkansas, 
Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisi- 
ana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Vir- 
ginia, we find the ratio of colored insane 
I to 1,277, while for the whites in the 
same territory it is 1 to 456. For the 


GEOGRAPHICAL DisrrRIBUTION OF INSANITY 


remainder of the United States the ratio 
of colored insane as shown by the Tenth 
Census was 1 to 542, while for the whites 
it was 1 to 520. ‘The ratio of colored 
insane in the United States, minus the 
Southern States, is then almost exactly 
the same as the ratio for the white in- 
sane. 

It seems that all the lines of evidence 
I have followed up lead to the same con- 
clusion; they are mutually confirmatory 
of the general law that the proportion 
of insane is highest where we find the 
greatest congestion of population, and, 
therefore, where the stresses incident to 
active competition are most severe. Our 
inquiry thus far, however, has been 
nothing if it has not been an inquiry 
into the causes of insanity, and I think 
I may fitly close by a general discussion 
of causes with a view to indicating some 
general conclusions relative to the com- 
parative influence of these mental 
stresses I have been discussing in the 
actual production of insanity. 

If we will take up any annual report 
of an institution for the insane and 
turn to the table giving the causes of 
insanity in the several patients under 
treatment, we will find assigned such 
causes as these: ‘‘ business anxiety,’’ 
“death of mother,’’ “‘ disappointment 
in love,’’ ‘‘ domestic troubles,’’ ‘‘ ex- 
cessive study,’’ ‘‘loss of property,”’ 
‘* political excitement.’’ How many of 
us but have suffered at some time or 
other from one or perhaps all of these 
so-called causes of insanity? Certainly 
we have all had business worries ; cer- 
tainly we have all lost property at some 
time, otherwise our good fortune is 
phenomenal; certainly we have all 
been subject to political excitement 
many times, and all of us presumably 
have lost a dear friend or relative, per- 
haps a father or mother. Dr Carlos F. 
MacDonald says very forcibly on this 
subject, ‘“* * * that substantially 
every individual at some time during 
his life is exposed, in many cases re- 


S77 


peatedly, to many of the so-called ex- 
citing causes of insanity, both mental 
and physical, and yet, despite this fact, 
we find that sanity is the rule—insanity, 
the exception,”’ 

In ascribing these causes what has 
been done is simply this: The particu- 
lar set of conditions that happened to 
maintain at the time the patient was 
attacked with insanity have been tabu- 
lated as the causes of that attack, 
whereas the true cause was in all prob- 
ability far removed from these which 
were in reality only accidental contem- 
poraries. In reality the true under- 
lying condition in all these cases for 
which such causes are assigned is the 
predisposition to insanity. 

Predisposition t& insanity may be 
either inherited or acquired. The 
former is more generally recognized and 
is what is referred to when insanity is 
said to be hereditary. Of all causes of 
insanity heredity is recognized as being 
by far the most important and as being 
most frequently present. The average 
for all countries has been estimated at 
from 60 to 70 percent. ‘This I believe, 
as a matter of fact, falls below the truth. 
But any one who is at all familiar with 
the collecting of statistics must know 
how impossible it is for them to fully 
represent the facts in such a matter. 

Next to hereditary predisposition 
comes acquired predisposition as a factor 
in causation, and the two most im- 
portant agents in bringing about this 
acquired predisposition are generally 
acknowled; ed to be, first, alcohol, and 
second, s\philis, both of which, how- 
ever, may «ct as true exciting causes at 
times. It is further conceded that both 
of these causes are much more preva- 
lent in civilized communities, and in 
fact seem to be fostered by that irregu- 
lar life which the active struggle after 
wealth necessitates. 

Theinadequacy of predisposition alone 
to account for insanity, especially ac- 
quired predisposition dte to alcohol, 


378 
syphilis, and tuberculosis, without the 
element of mental stress is well illus- 
trated by the condition of the American 
Indian. ‘Sorely afflicted as he is by the 
diseases and vices of civilization, his 
tendency is to an outdoor life, and as 
his land has disappeared and he has 
become physically incapacitated, the 
government has supported him, so that 
his sufferings have been in the main 
physical and not mental. Careless, 
slovenly, and improvident, he does not 
know much of worry for the morrow, 
and so we find that among his race 
“‘insanity is of rare occurrence.’’ * 
Without wearying you with further 
figures I will simply call your attention 
to the new light in which our conclu- 
sions now appear. Insanity is most fre- 
quent in the older civilizations, in the 
more thickly settled communities, in 
urban centers—in short, where competi- 
tion is most active. Here the weakling, 
the man whose mental faculties are not 
quite up to grade, who enters in the 


struggle handicapped by a poorly equili-” 


brated mind, goes to the wall. He is 
the victim of heredity. Here are bred 
all the vices which only a high grade of 
intelligence can call into being; stimu- 
lants, narcotics, drugs of all kinds are 
available to help the overburdened on 
their way, until at last they react and 
bring ruin and desolation. The victims 
who fall a prey to these temptations are 
the victims of an acquired predisposi- 
tion. 

Of these two varieties of causes he- 
redity is by far the more important. 
While civilization furnishes the envi- 
ronment that makes a bad heredity 
doubly dangerous, still it is the hered- 
ity which is the prepotent factor and 
not the environment. A bad heritage 
is always a source of danger, and its 
possessor can never know when the 
environmental conditions may appear 


* “The Civilized Indian, His Physical Charac- 
teristics and Some of His Diseases’’, by A. D. 
Lake, M.D. Trans. N. Y. Med. Soc., 1902. 


Tue Natrionat GrocrarHic MaAGaZzIngE 


which will make its latent activity ki- 
netic. No people in the world are freer 
than we are from the taints of vicious 
inheritance. Inhabitants of the most 
glorious country on earth, a country 
whose future for greatness and power 
and good seems to have no limit, let us 
see that we make the best possible use 
of the bounties nature has showered 
upon us with so prodigal a hand. 

But power and greatness are double- 
edged; they cut both ways; and already 
we are threatened with the dangers they 
have brought in their wake. The off- 
scourings of all Europe are hastening 
to our shores for that wealth they ex- 
pect to find ready at hand, and today 
50 per cent of the nearly 25,000 insane 
of New York State are foreign-born. 
The result of this great influx of de- 
fectives must of necessity have a con- 
stant leavening effect on the whole 
population. The danger from this 
source, however, is as nothing com- 
pared to that from war, the greatest 
curse that can afflict a nation. 

In war it is not the defective that 
goes down to death, but the flower of 
a nation’s manhood, and if modern 
theories of heredity are correct, their 
place can never be filled. Once gone, 
they are gone forever, while the maimed, 
the diseased, the imbeciles and- degen- 
erates, unable to sustain the hardships 
of campaigning, stay at home and help 
populate the country with their ilk. I 
believe one of the principal reasons for 
this country’s great prosperity lies in 
its freedom from foreign wars, and I am 
convinced that no more terrible calam- 
ity could happen to it than to be en- 
gaged in one. 

If we can control these two sources 
of evil successfully, I am sure that in- 
ternal affairs will so shape themselves 
as not to seriously interfere with a fu- 
ture which, I believe, can today only 
be dimly imagined, a future which will 
outshine the glory of ancient Rome as 
good outshines evil. 


er ROG NED) iit NORM PORE 


HE announcement of Commander 
Robert E. Peary that he is to 
make one more attempt to reach 
the North Pole has been received with 
much enthusiasm. Every one has been 
hoping that he would be able to carry 
out the plan which he has adopted for 
his next Arctic campaign, a plan which 
he outlined some months ago when it 
was doubtful whether he would ever go 
north again. ‘This plan differs in one 
very important respect from all his for- 
mer campaigns in that he proposes to 
make his winter camp fully one hun- 
dred miles north of his previous winter 
quarters ; so that when he is ready to 
start on his dash in spring he will be 
too miles nearer his goal. The dis- 
tance thus saved—from Cape Sabine to 
Cape Joseph Henry—is the most diffh- 
cult of traverse, and to overcome it has 
in the past taken several weeks of the 
short working season. 

The distance from Peary’s proposed 
winter camp near Cape Joseph Henry 
to the Pole and back again is less than 
the average distance of four sledging 
trips which he has made, and each of 
these trips was over rougher ice than 
it is believed will be encountered be- 
yond the 84th parallel. Mr Peary will 
start north in July, 1904. He hopes to 
be able to reach Cape Joseph Henry 
with his vessel in the fall of that year, 
and to make his dash in 1905. Incase 
he does not reach the cape in rgo04, he 
will spend 1905 in getting there, and 
make his dash in 1906. -His plan is 
outlined in the following letter, ad- 
dressed to the Secretary of the Navy, 
asking for three years’ leave of absence: 


WASHINGTON, D. C., 
September 2, 1903. 
Sir: Referring to my application for 
leave of absence accompanying this, I 
beg to state for your information that I 
propose to secure a suitable ship, put 
her into one of our best shipyards, have 


her reenforced and strengthened to the 
maximum degree and fitted with Amer- 
ican engines, possessing the maximum of 
strength and’ power with the minimum 
weight and space, so that she may go 
north as an exponent of American skill 
and mechanical ability. 

With such ship I should sail north 
about the 1st of next July, and on reach- 
ing the Whale Sound region should take 
on board my Eskimo, establish my per- 
manent sub-base at Cape Sabine, and 
then force my way northward to my 
proposed winter quarters on the north- 
ern shore of Grant Land, establishing 
caches as far as practicable en route. 
By the earliest returning light of the 
following February I should start due 
north over the polar pack with a small, 
light pioneer party, followed by a large, 
heavy main party. I should expect to 
accomplish the distance to the Pole and 
return in about 1oo days ora little more, 
an average travel of about 10 miles a 
day. Returning, I should break the 
ship out late in the same season and 
return home. 

If ice conditions the first year were 
such as to prevent reaching the north- 
ern shore of Grant Land, I should winter 
as far north as practicable and force the 
ship to the desired location the follow- 
ing year. In this event the expedition 
would be gone two years. 

This plan is the result of some twelve 
years of almost continuous experience 
in those latitudes, and is based upon an 
extended personal acquaintance with 
the region from Sabine to 84° north 
latitude and a thorough familiarity with 
climatic and other conditions and with 
Eskimo. 

The distinctive features of my plan 
are: The use of individual sledges with 
comparatively light loads, drawn by 
dogs, giving a traveling unit of high 
speed and radius of reach, as opposed to 
the man sledge, with its heavy load, 
slow speed, and limited radius; the 


380 


adoption of Eskimo methods and cos- 
tume and the fullest utilization of the 
Eskimo themselves. 

The advantage of my plan and route 
are a fixed land base too miles nearer 
the Pole than on any other route, a more 
rigid ice pack extending Poleward than 
is to be found on the opposite side of the 
Pole, a wider land base upon which to 
retreat, and a well-beaten line of com- 
munication and retreat from winter 
quarters to comparatively low latitudes, 
which is practicable at any season of the 
year. 

The work outlined above comprises 
two distinct stages, viz., the navigation 
of the ship to the northern shore of 
Grant Land, the traverse of the polar 
pack with sledges from the northern 
shore of Grant Land to the Pole and re- 
turn. In connection with the former, 
four ships (the Polaris, the Alert, the 
Discovery, and the Proteus) have accom- 
plished this feat. In regard to the sec- 
ond, I have already made four trips in 
those same regions, in which the aver- 
age air-line distance from start to finish 
was the same as the distance from Grant 
Land tothe Pole. The air-line distance 
from start to finish of my 1900 sledge 
journey was such that had my starting 
point been the northern shore of Grant 
Land it would have carried me beyond 
the Pole and return. I beg to state for 
your consideration the following : 

The North Pole is the last great geo- 
graphical prize the earth has to offer. 
Its attainment will be accepted as the 
sign of man’s final physical conquest of 
the globe, and it will always stand as 
one of the great milestones in the world’s 
history. 

The attainment of the North Pole is, 
in my opinion, our manifest privilege 
and duty. Its attainment by another 
country would be in the light of a re- 
proach and criticism. 

The sense of all the foremost geogra- 
phers, practical and theoretical, now 
converges upon the Smith Sound or 
‘‘American route,’’ along which I have 


Tue Nationat GrocGRAPHic MaGAZINE 


been working for years past. Other 
routes have been eliminated. If we de- 
lay in preempting this route some one 
else will step in and win the prize. 

I believe that my experience, gained 
in years of practical work ; my special 
methods of travel and equipment, the 
evolution of years of practical work ; 
my personal acquaintance with every 
feature of my chosen route and region, 
and my command of the full resources 
and utmost efforts of the entire little 
tribe of Whale Sound hyperboreans, 
who have lived and worked with me for 
years, give substantial reasons for antic- 
ipating a successful outcome to an ex- 
pedition based on the above lines. 

Very respectfully, 
R. E. PEARY, 
Civil Engineer, U.S. NV. 


Thereply of Hon. Charles H. Darling, 
Acting Secretary of the Navy, granting 
Mr Peary’s application, is as follows : 


DEAR Sir: In granting you leave of 
absence for the purpose of prosecuting 
your Arctic work, I am moved to re- 
mark that I believe you are better 
equipped than any other person in the 
country to undertake this work. You 
have the requisite courage, fortitude, 
and physique. You have had a longer 
term of service within the Arctic cir- 
cle than any other explorer. You 
have had large experience in sledge 
journeying, both upon the land and 
upon the polar pack. You are familiar 
with ice conditions through the Smith 
Sound route and north of Grant Land 
and the continent. You have demon- 
strated your ability to maintain yourself 
in that latitude for a longer period in 
health and safety than any other ex- 
plorer. You have reduced the incon- 
veniences and hardships of the Arctic 
service to a minimum. 

You are conversant with the language 
and customs of the Whale Sound Es- 
quimaux and are personally acquairted 
with every individual in the tribe. 


INFLUENCE OF ForeEstTRY ON LumBER INDUSTRY 


They have become accustomed to your 
leadership, and if you succeed in trans- 
porting the selected hunters and the 
best families to the north shore of Grant 
Land, as you propose, you will thereby 
establish a base which will enable you 
to live in safety and comparative comi- 
fort for an indefinite period. 

Grant Land as such base has great 
advantages over Spitzbergen, Franz 
Josef Land, or any other known point, 
in that it has an extensive shore line, 
which a party retreating from the Pole 
cannot fail to find, whatever may be 
the extent of the polar drift. 

In establishing a colony of Esquimaux 
at this point, you thereby establish a 
self-sustaining base at the nearest prac- 
ticable point to the Pole. Such self- 
sustaining base has not heretofore been 
established in any such high latitude. 
Your ability to force your ships to a high 
northing with this Esquimau colony is 
all important to your success. Such 
northing has been made by the Po/aris, 
the Alert, the Discovery, and the Proteus. 
There would seem to be no reason why 
you can notdothesame. Knowledge of 
ice conditions that has been gained since 
that time will certainly enable you to 
provide a ship better adapted to the pur- 
pose than either one of these. 


381 


The attainment of the Pole should be 
your main object. Nothing short will 
suffice. The discovery of the Poles is 
all that remains to complete the map of 
the world. What map should be com- 
pleted in our generation and by our 
countrymen. If it is claimed that the 
enterprise is fraught with danger and 
privation, the answer is that geograph- 
ical discovery in all ages has been pur- 
chased at the price of heroic courage 
and noble sacrifice. Our national pride 
is involved in the undertaking, and this 
department expects that you will ac- 
complish your purpose and bring fur- 
ther distinction to a service of illustrious 
traditions. 

In conclusion, I am pleased to inform 
you that the President of the United 
States sympathizes with your cause and 
approves the enterprise. 

With best wishes for your health and 
confidence in your success, 

I am, respectfully, 
CHARLES H. DARLING, 
Acting Secretary. 


The Peary Arctic Club, which so gen- 
erously supported Mr Peary’s explora- 
tions 1898-1902, have contributed the 
funds that make this new expedition 
possible. 


Lee INPEUENCE OF FORESTRY UPON THE 
MOVIE RE EN DUSMRY Or WEE 
ONE DE SAEs: 


By Overton W. Price, 


ASSISTANT FORESTER, BUREAU OF FORESTRY 


HE development of the lumber 

| industry in this country is 
without parallel. Itnowranks 

fourth among the great manufacturing 


industries of the United States, and 
represents an invested capital of about 
$611,000,000 and an annual outlay of 
over $100,000,000 in wages. It af- 


* Republished from the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1goz2. 


382 


tords through its three great branches— 
the logging industry, the sawmill in- 
dustry, and the planing-mill industry— 
a means of livelihood to considerably 
over a million persons. The annual 
value of the products, which has mul- 
tiplied nearly ten times in the last half 
century, is $566,000,000. 

But although the rapid development 
of the lumber industry has had far- 
reaching results in furthering every 
branch of manufacture which depends 
upon wood, it has been fundamentally 
unsound in principle. The settler who 
cuts and sells trees without forethought 
from land fit only for forest growth has 
not enriched himself in the long run. 
The havoc which has been wrought in 
the forests of the United States has 
turned trees into money, but has put 
the balance on the wrong side of the 
sheet by rendering vast areas unpro- 
ductive. It is the history of all great 
industries directed by private interests 
that the necessity for modification is 
not seen until the harm has been done 
and its results are felt. This fact has 
been emphasized in the lumber indus- 
try—in the earlier days by the instinct- 
ive feeling of the colonist against his 
natural enemy, the forest, and later by 
the remarkable inducements offered by 
lumbering for present profit only. 

The first settlers had two objects in 
view in their attack upon the forest— 
the one to clear land for their farms, 
the other to procure wood for their 
buildings, fuel, and fences. As the 
tide of colonization rose, and as the 
uses for wood in manufacture increased 
in number and extent, lumbering rap- 
idly assumed the proportions of a busi- 
ness enterprise, and from supplying 
only personal wants it became profit- 
able to supply also those of others. 
With an apparently inexhaustible sup- 
ply of timber available, and with an 
insistent and growing demand, the lum- 
ber industry came to offer remarkable 
opportunities for money-making. Step 


Tue Natrionat GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


by step with its development improve- 
ment in tools and machinery took place. 
The changes that enterprise and inge- 
nuity have wrought in the American 
sawmill are no less wonderful than 
those which have taken place in the 
American locomotive. From ‘‘ whip- 
sawing,’’ in which the boards were 
sawed out by hand, to the modern steam 
sawmill, with its railroad, its planing 
mill, and its cut of nearly half a mil- 
lion board feet per day, isa long step, 
but it has not taken much over fifty 
years to accomplish it. In effective 
methods for the harvesting and manu- 
facture of lumber the American lum- 
berman has no superior, nor is he 
equaled in his disregard for the future 
of the forest which he cuts. 

It is natural that the lumberman 
should not turn eagerly from a system 
whose only aim is to secure the highest 
possible present profit from the forest 
to one which includes provisions for the 
production of a second crop upon the 
lumbered area. Under conservative 
methods lumbering becomes a legiti- 
mate industry for the production as 
well as for the consumption of its sta- 
ple. It no longer offers, however, the 
short cut to fortune which it proved to 
be so long as an abundance of timber 
rendered the old methods of lumbering 
possible. It is difficult for lumbermen 
generally to realize that the time for 
practical forestry has fully arrived, 
but signs more significant than any ex- 
isting statistics point to the imminent 
failure in the supply of certain timbers 
in the United States. From the data 
available there is no way to foretell ac- 
curately the time necessary to exhaust 
this supply of merchantable timber at 
the present rate of consumption. A 
good many estimates of the merchant- 
able timber standing have been made, 
some of which have already proved fal- 
lacious. 

To predict accurately how long it 
will be before the United States is con- 


INFLUENCE OF ForgstRy ON LumsBer INDUsTRY 383 


From the American Museum of Natural History 


The Cross Section of a Giant Sequoia 


384 


fronted by a timber famine would re- 
quire first of all a knowledge of the 
composition, quality, and condition of 
the forests, which it would take many 
years to obtain. At present such an 
estimate is of little practical value. We 
do know that the supply of timber of 
many kinds is failing. of other kinds is 
almost exhausted, and of others is prac- 
tically gone; that- black walnut is no 
more to be had except in small quanti- 
ties and at enormous expense; that 
first-growth white pine is growing rap- 
idly to be a rarity on the market ; that 
where the supply of spruce for pulp- 
wood and for lumber for the next ten 
years is to be found is a grave question 
before the lumbermen today. The list 
of woods accepted as merchantable 
lengthens from year to year, species 
hitherto considered valueless being har- 
vested more and more willingly as the 
result of the exhaustion of more valu- 
able kinds. In spite of steady im- 
provement in tools, logging outfits, and 
mill machinery, all tending to cheapen 
the cost of lumbering, the price of 
lumber increases steadily and rapidly. 
These are facts more significant than 
predictions in terms of years of the life 
of the lumber industry. The exact 
period for which the existing supplies 
are sufficient is a matter of detail. The 
vital point lies in the crisis which the 
lumber industry is approaching in the 
exhaustion of the material on which its 
existence depends. 

The general application of forestry to 
forest lands owned. by lumbermen will 
probably result in the gradual elimina- 
tion of the large sawmill and the sub- 
stitution of those of moderate size. The 
mammoth milling plant will be rare 
when only second growth is left to sup- 
ply it, for the area of timber land suffi- 
cient to produce the logs necessary to 
run such a plant is enormous. It is 
reasonable to expect that the mill of 
moderate size, supplied by a forest whose 
production is equal to the mill’s annual 


Tue Narionat GreocraPHic MAGAZINE 


capacity, both under the same manage- 
ment, will become more and more the 
rule. The very existence of the enor- 
mous mill is the result of an abundance 
of timber resources, which exist no 
longer except in a very few sections. 
In Europe the long-continued applica- 
tion of conservative measures in lum- 
bering has resulted in a distribution and 
type of sawmill little known in this 
country. Sawmills of large size do not 
exist, but in their stead small sawmills, 
for which water generally supplies the 
power, are distributed throughout the 
country wherever the local demand is 
sufficient tokeép them running. Their 
annual cut is for the most part exceed- 
ingly small, according to our standards, 
and sufficient only to supply the wants 
of the immediate adjacent country. 
The mills saw largely on order, and the 
fact that their construction is permanent 
and their motive power cheap enables 
them to run intermittently without loss. 
The results are upon the whole exceed- 
ingly satisfactory. The man who wants 
lumber gets it promptly, and without 
paying an added cost for long transpor- 
tation. The antiquated construction of 
European sawmills is often such that 
the American lumberman would find in 
them but a proof of his superior inge- 
nuity ; but the European distribution 
of milling plants has its strong advan- 
tages in several ways. 

The general application of conserva- 
tive methods in lumbering will inevi- 
tably result, as has been the case in 
Europe, in the development of a per- 
manent class of men trained to forest 
work. Under present methods this re- 
sult can never be attained to the same 
degree. The lumbering in one com- 
munity is generally so short-lived that 
there is neither time nor necessity to 
train up a body of men on the ground 
to carry out the work. The result is 
that Maine and Michigan woodsmen are 
found working in the hardwoods of the 
Southern Appalachians ; loggers from 


vronbag yurIr) vB Jo dumyg otf, 


A10)SIH |BANJEN JO ulnasnyy URoTIOULY ay} WOT 


385 


336 


Wisconsin and Minnesota are helping 
to cut the redwood on the Pacific coast, 
and in each of the great timber regions 
there is a mingling of lumbermen from 
several of the others. The effect has 
been to develop, by constant labor at 
their trade under widely varying condi- 
tions, a force of men who are unequaled 
for enterprise and skill in their profes- 
sion ; but the system has very largely 
failed in what is of infinitely greater 
importance to the permanent welfare of 
the lumber industry—the upbuilding 
throughout the country of a stable class 
of workers in the woods, locally trained 
and carrying on their work each in his 
own community. The advantages of 
such a condition lie in an equitable 
geographical distribution of labor, in 
the wholesome influence throughout the 
country of a class whose means of live- 
lihood is forest work, and in the fact 
that all the operations of lumbering 
may in this way be conducted more 
cheaply than in any other. 

The effect upon the prices of lumber 
which will result from the application 
of forestry to the lumber industry will 
be strongly markedz»..The wide fluctua- 
tion characteristic of lumber values to- 
day is much more the result of condi- 
tions within the industry itself than of 
variations in the demand for the product 
of the forest. The uncertainty of avail- 
able supplies, the lack of true proportion 
between stumpage values and lumber 
values, the speculative features which 
the industry now presents, have all 
tended to produce an exceedingly un- 
stable and abnormal fluctuation in the 


Tue NationaL GreocrapHic MAGAZINE 


prices of lumber, with a marked dispo- 
sition toward rapid increase. Under 
forestry the speculative element can not 
exist. The cost of producing timber, 
plus a legitimate profit, will be the basis. 
upon which the value of it will be fixed. 
The annual output of the country will 
be no longer a matter of conjecture, and 
a steady and normal range of prices for 
lumber will be the inevitable result. 

The influence of forestry upon the 
lumber industry is not a matter of con- 
jecture. The details will have to work 
themselves out, but the broad results of 
conservative forest policy on the part of 
private owners are plain. The lumber 
industry in the United States is ap- 
proaching a crisis. ‘There is no-more 
doubt that conservative methods will be 
applied to lumbering in this country 
than there is of the development of ir- 
rigation, of regulation of grazing, of the 
application of improved methods in 
agriculture, or of any other modifica- 
tion to which private as well as public 
interests point the way. How long it 
will be before the results of practical 
forestry make themselves generally felt 
it is impossible to foretell ; but the fact 
remains that there will be established 
in this as in other countries in which. 
conservative lumbering has followed 
wasteful lumbering a legitimate and 
permanent industry, characterized, as 
has been stated, by conditions under 
which speculation can not exist. Prices. 
will continue normal and steady, and 
the quantity of timber produced will be 
the main factor iu regulating consump- 
tion. 


GEOGRAPHIC NOTES 


GUILLEMOT EGGS 


HROUGH the courtesy of Mr Jo- 
seph Stanley-Brown, formerly 
Secretary of the National Geographic 
Society, the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 


MAGAZINE is able to publish the remark- 
able illustration of guillemot eggs shown 
on page 387. The photograph was. 
taken by Mr H. D. Chichester at the 
boat landing on St Paul Island, Pribilof 
group, and isa result of one of the an— 


337 


GeocraPHic Nores 


Guillemot Eggs—St Paul Island, Pribiloff Group 


388 


nual trips of the Aleuts, who live on St 
Paul, to the barren rock called Walrus 
Island, which lies a little to the eastward 
of the extreme northern point of St 
Paul. In the spring, when the guille- 
mots (‘‘arries,’’ they are called by the 
natives) and gulls begin to lay eggs on 
this isolated, and hence protected, rock, 
the natives go there in their boats and 
sweep clean a large area. Returning two 
weeks later they find a vast number of 
eggs which have not been set upon suffi- 
ciently to be spoiled. The photograph 
represents the results of such an expedi- 
tion to Walrus Island. The egg of the 
guillemot is somewhat larger than a 
hen’s egg, and the contents make an 
excellent article of food, not quite so 
palatable to the white man’s taste as the 
hen’s egg, but still a most excellent sub- 
stitute for it in the land where hen’s 
eggs are few and far between. 


SKULL OF THE IMPERIAL MAMMOTH 


HERE has just been placed on 
exhibition in the Fossil Mammal 
Hall of the American Museum of Nat- 
ural History a superb specimen of the 
tusks and palate of what may be known 
as the ‘‘ imperial mammoth,’’ described 
in 1858 by Joseph Leidy as Elephas im- 
perator, from a single tooth found in 
Indiana. 

The specimen was discovered in the 
sands of western Texas many years ago 
by an amateur collector, and was only 
recently secured by the American Mu- 
seum. The upper portions of the skull 
have been reproduced in plaster, but the 
entire lower portion of the skull, the 
large pair of grinding teeth, and the 
gigantic tusks are complete. The latter 
fall little short of being the largest ele- 
phant tusks thus far described among 
either living or fossil members of this 
family. So far as preserved they meas- 
ure 13 feet 6 inches from the base of the 
tusks to the tips, and there is at least 
a foot broken away from the end of 


Tue Nationa, GrocrarHic MAGAZINE 


the tip, making the total estimated 
length 14 feet 6 inches. 

On leaving the skull, the tusks (which 
were undoubtedly used for fighting pur- 
poses) in young and middle-aged ani- 
mals curve downward and outward; 
then, in old animals, upward and in- 
ward until the tips almost meet each 
other. The height of this animal must 
have been at least 13 feet, 2 feet higher 
than that of the famous African ele- 
phant ‘‘Jumbo,”’ the skeleton of which 
is also in the Museum. 

The single molar or grinding tooth 
is distinguished from that of the mam- 
moth of the extreme north (Z/ephas 
primigenius) and that of the Columbian 
mammoth of the middle United States 
(Elephas columbi) by its very large size 
and by the comparatively small number 
of its enamel plates, which are set widely 
apart and surrounded by broad bands of 
cement. In the grinders of the north- 
ern mammoth the enamel plates are ex- 
tremely numerous and closely appressed 
and there is little or no cement. 

This specimen of the imperial mam- 
moth, therefore, adds greatly to our 
knowledge, and, together with the giant 
fore limb, which is placed on exhibition 
near by, gives an impressive idea of the 
enormous size attained by the early 
Pleistocene or preglacial elephants in 
this country. 


EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL GEO- 
GRAPHIC CONGRESS 


URSUANT to the action of the 
Seventh International Geographic 
Congress held in Berlin in 1899, the 
geographers and geographic societies of 
the United States are considering plans 
for the ensuing congress, which is to 
convene in September, 1904. It is pro- 
posed to have the principal scientific 
sessions in Washington early in the 
month, and to have social sessions in 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and 
Chicago, with a final session in conjunc- 


GrocrapHic Nores 389 


From the American Museum of Natural History 


Skull and Tusks of the Imperial Mammoth Discovered in the Sands 
of Western Texas 


$Geo 


tion with the World’s Congress of 
Science and Arts in St. Louis. It is 
provisionally planned also to provide an 
excursion from St. Louis to Mexico, 
and thence to points of geographic in- 
terest in western United States and 
Canada. 

A preliminary announcement is in 
press and will shortly be issued to offi- 
cers and members of geographic societies 
in all countries, and to geographers who 
may express interest in the Congress 
aud its work. Details have been en- 
trusted to a committee of arrangements 
made up of representatives from geo- 
graphic societies in all parts of the 
United States. The officers of the com- 
mittee are: Dr W J McGee (Vice-Presi- 
dent National Geographic Society), 
chairman ; Mr John Joy Edson (Presi- 
dent Washington Loan and Trust Com- 
pany), treasurer, and Dr J. H. McCor- 
mick, secretary. The office of the 
committee is in Hubbard Memorial Hall, 
Washington, D. C., U. S. A., where 
communications may be addressed. 


PHILIPPINE CENSUS 


HE field work of the Philippine 
census has been practically com- 
pleted. All that remains to be done is 
the tabulation, compilation, and publi- 
cation of the returns, a very small mat- 
ter compared to the difficulty of obtain- 
ing the information. 

A rough count shows that the total 
population of the islands is 6,976,574, 
of which number about 650,000 are in- 
cluded in what are termed wild tribes. 

Thecivilized population, by provinces, 
is stated as follows: Abra, 37,928 ; Al- 
bay, 235,798; Ambos Camarines, 233,- 
183; Antique, 133,674; Bataan, 43,606; 
Batangas, 258,802; Benguet, 917; Bo- 
‘hol, 268,397; Bulacan, 220,289; Caga- 
yan, 143,438; Capiz, 224,581; Cavite, 
134,438; Cebu, 651,621; Ilocos Norte, 
167,717; Ilocos Sur, 171,619; Lloilo, 
399,236; Isabela, 69,076; Laguna, 147,- 


Tue Nationa GrocrarHic MaGaZzIne 


660; La Union, 127,966; Lepanto Bon- 
toc, 2,413; Layte, 389,911; Manila, 
319,941; Marinduque, 51,801; Masbate, 
44,045; Mindoro, 31,331; Misamis, 138,- 
329; Negros Occidental, 309,950; Ne- 
gros Oriental, 186,397; Nueva, Ecija, 
132,271; Pampanga, 218,766; Panga- 
sinan, 397,443; Paragua, 27,481; Rizal, 
123,422; Romblon, 52,858; Samar, 
265,509; Sorsogon, 120,123; Surigao, 
98,714; Tarlac, 135,397; Tayabas, 149,- 
289, and Zambales, 100,953. 

Some difficulty was experienced by 
the census enumerators in the provinces 
of Bulacau, Rizal, Laguna, Batangas, 
and Albay, due to roving bands of la- 
drones, and in four instances the enu- 
merators were held up; but, with a 
single exception, the schedules were not 
molested. In the Island of Camiguin, 
Misamis, the enumerators met with 
armed opposition, but probably the 
census was a pretext and not the real 
cause of the hostile demonstration. 

The census was most successful in 
every respect, and reflects great credit 
on the American administration and 
especially on the gentlemen in charge 
of the work, General Sanger, Mr Henry 
Gannett, and Mr V. H. Olmsted. 


CORRECTION 


N a letter to the NATIONAL GEO- 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE heartily ap- 
proving the suggestion of a comprehen- 
sive exploration of the volcanic belt of 
Central America, a suggestion that was 
made in this Magazine in July, 1903, 
Hon. Antonio Lazo Arriaga, Envoy 
Extraordinary and Minister Pienipo- 
tentiary of Guatemala, states that the 
reports of loss of life and property by 
volcanic disturbances in Guatemala dur- 
ing 1902 and 1903 have been vastly ex- 
aggerated. Mr Arriaga refers particu- 
larly to the effects of the earthquake at 
Quezaltenango April 18, 1902, and of 
the eruption of Santa Maria in Novem- 
ber of the same year. 


GerocrapHic Nores 


“On each of those occasions and 
under the excitement of the first mo- 
ment news was sent abroad telling of 
“fearful destruction of life’ and of ‘thou- 
sands of lives destroyed.’ When the 
facts were investigated it was found that 
a few persons, most of them Indians, 
who were not numbered by hundreds, 
and even less by thousands, had lost 
their lives. It was indeed very unfor- 
tunate, but we all felt less depressed 
when we found that the first published 
news was exaggerated out of all propor- 
tion with the real loss of life. The same 
was the case with the loss of property, 
estimated at a great many millions of 
dollars by the first news, and reduced 
later on to the real ones—that is, the loss 
of a part, not the largest, of the latest 
coffee crop, and some damage caused to 
the cities and towns. Since then almost 
all the coffee plantations of the affected 
zone have recuperated, thanks to the 
fertility of the lands and to the washing 
of the sand by the heavy rains which 
followed the eruptions.’’ 


Nearly one million immigrants, 921,315, 
were adopted by the United States dur- 
ing the twelve months ending June 30, 
1903. ‘This was 275,000 more than dur- 
ing 1902 and 130,000 more than during 
the banner year of 1882. 

Of this total nearly one-half came from 
Italy and Austria-Hungary, Italy send- 
ing 230,622 and Austria 206,011, which 
were respectively 52,247 and 34,022 
more than for the preceding twelve 
months. Russia came third with 136,- 
093, Sweden fourth with 46,028, Ger- 
many fifth with 40,086, and Ireland sixth 
with 35,310. Japan sent 19,958, China 
2,209, and the West Indies 8,170. 

In addition to those admitted, 8,769 
would-be immigrants were denied admis- 
sion, and 547 more were returned to 
countries whence they came within one 
year after landing. The grounds for 
disbarment were: Pauperism, 5,812 


SOE 


cases ; disease, 1,773 ; contract laborers, 
1,086 ; convicts, 51 ; insane and idiots, 
24;.women for immoral purposes, 13 ; 
aided paupers, 9, and polygamy,1. Of 
the total number admitted, 631,885 
landed at the port of New York, 62,838 
at Boston, 55,802 at Baltimore, and 
32,943 by the northern border. 


The United States Geological Survey 
has just issued a list, complete up to 
June, 1903, of its serial publications, 
consisting of annual reports, mono- 
graphs, professional papers, bulletins, 
mineral resources, water-supply and 
irrigation papers, topographic atlas of 
the United States, and geologic atlas of 
the United States. Monographs, topo- 
graphic sheets, and geologic folios are 
sold at cost of publication—topographic 
sheets (of which indexes, free on appli- 
cation, are published from time to time) 
are sold at 5 cents each, or $2 per 100 
in one order; geologic folios usually at 
25 cents each; the other publications 
are distributed free. 


A North Polar Expedition, a cable- 
gram from England announces, is being 
organized by Captain Drake, who pro- 
poses to build a vessel of barkentine 
rig, with auxiliary steam power. She 
will be of 380 tons and will be pro- 
visioned for six years. With acrew of 
twenty, Captain Drake will leave Lon- 
don in December, 1904, for Vladivo- 
stock, and go thence to Point Barrow, 
Alaska, which he expects to reach in 
July, 1905. Thence he will proceed 
easterly to Prince Patrick Land, where 
the winter of 1905-1906 will be passed. 
In 1906 he will endeavor to push his 
ship as far northas 86°, and then make 
his dash for the Pole. 


A cablegram from South America an- 
nounces the successful ascent of Mt 
Sorata, 21,500 feet, by Miss Annie S. 
Peck. 


DIRE CRORY OR FORFIGERS AND COUNG@GIIE= 
LORS OF GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETIES 
Ole Wiss, WINWITIEID) SIA aS 


AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY 
15 West EHighty-first Street, New York, N. Y. 


President, Robert E. Peary Foreign Corresponding Secretary, 
Vice-Presidents, D. O. Mills William Libbey 
C. C. Tiffany Domestic Corresponding Secretary, 
W. H. H. Moore Chandler Robbins 
Recording Secretary, Anton A. Raven Treasurer, Walter R. T. Jones 
Councillors 
John Hadden George S. Bowdoin Francis M. Bacon 
Levi Holbrook Charles S. Fairchild John Greenough 
Morris K. Jesup William G. Hamilton James J. Higginson . 
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NOVEMBER, 1903 _- No. 11 


CONTENTS 
PAGE | 


© PANORAMA OF THE WRANGELL MOUNTAINS . . Frontispiece 


© THE WRANGELL MOUNTAINS, ALASKA. BY W. C. MENDEN- 
; HALL. ILLUSTRATED . . ° + 395 


| RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 
"> ILLUSTRATED. . 408 


a THE ZIEGLER POLAR EXPEDITION. ILLUSTRATED .  . 414 


4 THE WORK OF THE MINING BUREAU OF THE PHILIPPINE 
p ISLANDS. BY CHARLES H. BURRITT 


e o 
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RICHARD URQUHART GOODE, WITH PORTRAIT 
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Voi. XIV, No. 11 


WASHINGTON 


NovEMBER, 1903 


THE WRANGELL MOUNTAINS, ALASKA* 


Watrer C. MENDENHALL 


OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


OUNT WRANGELL, the act- 
M ive volcano in the valley of 
the Copper River, was named 

in honor of Baron Von Wrangell, gov- 
ernor of the Russian colonies in Alaska 
from 1831 to 1836. The peak was no 
doubt first seen by white men during 
some of the various official attempts by 
the Russians in the early part of the 
century to explore Copper River, al- 
though they seem to have known of it, 
under the name Chechitno Volcano, in 
the eighteenth century, probably from 
native accounts. The last, the most 
promising, and the most tragic of the 
Russian exploring expeditions was that 
led by the creole Serebrenikoff in 1848. 
He, with two white companions, was 
sent by Tebenkof, at that time chief 
director of the Russian colonies in 
America, to examine the Copper to its 
source, then to visit the distant Kwik- 
pak, as the Russians called the Yukon. 
The work was carried through the 
Chugatch Mountains which border the 
coast to some point beyond the mouth 
of the Copper’s western tributary, the 
Tazlina, where Serebrenikoff and his 


companions were murdered by natives, 
whom their behavior had goaded to 
desperation. Afterward the natives re- 
turned the records of the explorers to 
the Russian authorities. 

Probably Russian traders visited the 
Copper Valley and the Wrangell Moun- 
tain region between 1848 and 1867, the 
date of the transfer of the territory to 
the United States, for they knew of the 
easy route from Cook Inlet, where they 
had strong colonies, by way of the 
Matanuska Valley to Lake Plevezenie ; 
but there seems to have been no further 
official attempt to explore in this direc- 
tion. 

After the purchase, our first clear ac- 
count of the mountain is from the diary 
of a prospector, John Bremner, who in 
1884 ascended the Copper with the in- 
terior natives who were returning from 
the coast to their winter homes. Brem- 
ner was in search of the great blocks of 
native copper which were currently re- 
ported to exist in the region. His trip 
must have seemed hazardous, for he 
was without white companions, and the © 
Copper River Indians had sustained a 


* Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. 


396 


bad reputation since the days of the 
Russian occupation. Bremner expected 
to winter at Taral, just below the junc- 
tion of the Copper and its great eastern 
tributary, the Chittyna, and he carried 
out his intention in spite of the diffi- 
culties which the undertaking involved. 
The Indians stole his flour, so he snared 
and aterabbits. They tested his powers 
as ashaman by calling him in in cases 
of sickness. He prescribed thorough 
baths and applied mustard plasters, 
curing his patients and making illness 
a thing to be dreaded at Taral. All of 
this and more is recorded in a diary 
whose English and spelling are as origi- 
nal as the tale they tell. 

Bremner describes the phenomena 
which he witnessed of Mount Wrangell 
in eruption, and gives a brief ‘account 
of his attempt during the winter to 
climb the volcano. He estimated it to 
be 25 or 30 miles from Taral ; its actual 
distance is 40 miles. ‘The natives, al- 
ways superstitious concerning the moun- 
tain, declined to go with him, so he 
started out alone. He failed of course 
in midwinter to reach a summit 14,000 
feet above the sea, and had his ears and 
toes badly frozen as a result of the 
attempt. 

In the early spring of 1885, under 
orders from the War Department, Lieut. 
Henry T. Allen, U. S. Army, the 
present efficient head of the native con- 
stabulary in the Philippine Islands, 
undertook an exploration of the Copper 
and of the T'ananaand Koyukuk Rivers. 
Because of the resolution displayed, the 
difficulties overcome, and the results 
achieved, Lieutenant Allen’s work 
stands asa model tothis day.. At Taral 
he found Bremner and added him to the 
party which already contained, in ad- 
dition to Sergeant Robertson and Private 
Fisher, Bremner’s partner, Peder John- 
son. Allen reached Taral over the ice 
from Alaganik on April 10, and a few 
days later began a difficult journey up 
the Chittyna, the great eastern fork of 


Tue NatrionaL GeocrapHic MaGaZzInE 


the Copper, and explored it nearly to 
its source. Later the ascent of the 
Copper was resumed, and the portage 
was made from the Indian village of 
Batzulnetas on the upper Copper to the 
Tanana Valley by way of Suslota Pass. 
While within the Copper Valley, Lieu- 
tenant Allen went almost around the 
group of mountains of which Mount 
Wrangell is the center. He made con- 
stant observations on the individual 
peaks of the group, and later published, 
in an account of his work, the first map 
upon which the companion peaks of 
Wrangell appear. These he named 
Blackburn, in honor of Senator Black- 
burn ; Sanford, after an ancestor of the 
explorer ; Drum, forthe Adjutant Gen- 
eral of the Army, and Tillman, in honor 
of Professor Tillman of the U. S. Mili- 
tary Academy. Mount Wrangell had 
already been named by the Russians, so 
that upon Lieutenant Allen’s map five 
great peaks are shown where one had 
been known before. ‘The actively vol- 
canic character of Mount Wrangell, 
which had been referred to in Bremner’s 
diary, is repeatedly confirmed by Allen, 
to whom the smoke column was fre- 
quently visible. 

After Allen’s explorations, the next 
geographically important work in the 
area was done by Dr C. Willard Hayes, 
who in 1891, in company with Fred- 
erick Schwatka and Mark Russell, made 
the long journey on foot from Fort Sel- 
kirk on the Yukon tothe Copper Valley. 
Discovering and crossing Scolai Pass, 
unknown before this time, the hardy 
explorers built a boat on the upper 
Nizina from the canvas in which their 
blankets had been wrapped, and in this 
frail craft floated down the Nizina and 
the Chittyna to the Copper. Scolai 
Pass, which with its approaches was 
mapped by Doctor Hayes, is properly 
to be regarded as the eastern limit of 
the group whose dominant summits had 
been indicated by Allen. 

In 1898, during the first year of the 


9) 7/ 


WranceLt Mountains, ALASKA 


Photo by W. C. Mendenhall 


Mount Wrangell 


View taken from the government trail aboye Tonsina bridge, 45 miles from the summit of the mountain 


398 


rush to Alaska, some additional map- 
ping in the Copper Valley was done by 
army officers and by prospectors, and 
especially by Schrader and Mahlo, at- 
tached to Military Expedition No. 1. 
This work was confined, however, to 
the district south and west of the moun- 
tain group and added little to our knowl- 
edge of their geography. In 1899 a 
journey was made, which in its daring 
and success equals those of Allen, Hayes, 
and Schwatka as a geographic feat. 
The distance covered was not nearly 
so great, but the time consumed was 
also much less. Oscar Rohn, topog- 
rapher and geologist tothe military ex- 
pedition under command of Captain 
Abercrombie, with a small pack train, 
penetrated for the first time with ani- 
mals the rough country lying between 
the Chittyna River and the south slope 
of the Wrangell Alps. Reaching the 
Nizina or north fork of the Chittyna in 
September, and seeing, as he thought, 
the possibility of crossing the range to 
the north of him by way of one of the 
glaciers tributary to this stream, Mr 
Rohn sent the pack train back to Valdez 
and with one companion, Mr McNeer, 
started acrossthe mountains. The pass 
at the head of the glacier proved to 
be 8,000 feet above sea-level, and the 
distance from the beginning of the 
journey over the ice on the Nizina side 
to its end at the source of the Chisana 
(Tanana) was nearly 50 miles. The 
route, the character of the ice to be 
traversed, the distance, and the point 
to be reached on the other side were 
unknown. After 15 dayson the glacier 
and many delays from the storms which 
prevail at this season of the year in 
these latitudes, the two explorers found 
themselves at the source of the Chisana, 
the eastern fork of the Tanana, nearly 
out of supplies and with a difficult and 
little-known region separating them 
from the Copper Valley. On foot, and 
carrying their light outfit, they crossed 
Cooper Pass to what they hoped would 


Tue Nationat GrocrapHic MaGaZINE 


be the Copper, only to find that it was 
the Nabesna, the great western fork of 
the Tanana, and that the Copper was 
still to the west of them. Ice was form- 
ing in all the streams and snow lay 
thick in the passes, but with the aid 
of natives they reached the Copper in 
early October, Copper Center a week 
later, and crossed Lowe River divide to 
Valdez through 3 feet of new snow on 
the 25th. This work, although a recon- 
naissance, added valuable details to our 
knowledge of the northern and southern 
flanks of the Wrangell Mountains. 

All of the work which has been out- 
lined, up to the close of the season 1899, 
was general inits character. Allen had 
indicated the presence of five great peaks 
in the Wrangell group where four ex- 
isted, and his longitude was in error by 
30 minutes. Mahlo, in 1898, corrected 
much of this error in longitude, but 
since he descended the Klutena to Cop- 
per Center, and then went down the 
Cooper, he could add little to the geog- 
rapky of the mountain group proper, 
which lay well to the northeast of his 
route. Rohn, in his work along the 
southern flank of the range, sketched 
details previously unknown there, and 
in his trip from the Nizina to the Tanana 
studied a high area which is not likely 
to be investigated soon again. Peters 
and Brooks, during the same year, con- 
tributed to our knowledge of the Chisana 
and the Nabesna and outlined the north- 
ern edge of the range. 

In 1900, however, Messrs Gerdine and 
Witherspoon, of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, as members of a party in charge 
of Mr F. C. Schrader, carried a stadia 
line into the interior from a Coast Sur- 
vey base on Prince William Sound. 
From locations given by this line a tri- 
angulation network was expanded and 
extended eastward over practically the 
entire valley of the Chittyna and its trib- 
utaries. For the first time Mount Black- 
burn was measured accurately, and the 
topographic features of all this southern 


WranceLL Mountains, ALASKA 


side of the range were delineated in de- 
tail and with fidelity. 

In 1902 the same workers continued 
their surveys, Mr Gerdine along the 
western flanks of the mountains and Mr 
Witherspoon along the northern, so that 
we at last have topographic data of a 
definite nature for nearly all of the 
group. The area which is not as yet 
accurately mapped extends east from 
the head of Nabesna glacier to the head 
of White River, and includes the glacial 
drainage of the upper Chisana. Over 
the remaining portion of the group we 
have topographic sheets on the scale of 
4 miles to the inch, drawn with a con- 
tour interval of 200 feet. These give 
sufficiently complete data for an accurate 
definition of the geographic relations of 
the mountain mass. 

In carrying on this work the survey- 
ors travel from place to place by pack 
train, occupying, successively, high 
points, which are located by intersection 
on other previously determined posi- 
tions. From these points—‘‘stations,’”’ 
as they are called—the positions of all 
prominent features in sight—peaks, 
streams, lakes, and glaciers—are fixed 
by horizontal angles, and elevations are 
determined by vertical: angles. With 
these locations and elevations as a foun- 
dation, the streams are drawn and the 
outlines and slopes of the mountains 
shown by contours, each feature being 
sketched while the map-maker is look- 
ingat it. The work is precisely similar 
to that carried on in the rougher parts 
of the United States, except that the 
scale is smaller, the spacing of stations 
is not so carefully done, and less detail 
is preserved. 


CHARACTER OF THE MOUNTAINS 


The Wrangell group occupies a rudely 
elliptical area, with the extensive low- 
lands of the Copper and the Chittyna 
valleys on the south and west, but con- 
nected toward the east with the some- 
what greater heights of the St Elias 


399 


Alps. A well-marked depression on the 
north, which extends from the upper 
Copper across the Nabesna and the 
Chisana to the White, separates them 
from the neighboring Nutzotin and 
Mentasta ranges. Measured along the 
greater diameter of the ellipse from 
Scolai Pass northwestward to the outer 
base of Mount Drum, the extent of the 
group is about too miles, while the 
other diameter at right angles to this 
is approximately 70 miles in length. 
Within this area of 5,500 square miles 
are at least ten snow-clad peaks 12,000 
feet or morein height. Several of these 
are unnamed, and two of them, Mounts 
Sanford and Blackburn, are higher than 
Mont Blanc or any of the peaks within 
the borders of the United States. 

A partial list of the principal peaks 
and their elevations has appeared in an 
earlier issue of this Magazine, but a 
fuller list is appended here : 


Mount Sanford................ Se 16, 200 
IM(OBIAEIIES KOEN 556600 ane noonscos 16,140 
MOTE WEIR, oo ooce4. 050 ooaoda 14,000 
WIGTaNAE INGE Goocuasss0un0e0ensooons 13,400 
MMT: ZZAKNEAUO, 6 S5cc09 pondoodcnoneac 12,980 


Mio Kae VEINS cosocsucooccb0s000 anode 12,300 


Mountie) riminnerer re ice ere inet 12,c0o 
Capitale Mo mntanniyeesiee een eee eae 9,697 
Wigavmne Coco, osacoccacssnccadcc6 9, 100 
SnidernmPeadks mune er rey aerate 8,345 


In addition to these summits, to which 
names have been applied, there are two 
or three unnamed points on the ridge 
bet ween Wrangell and Blackburn which 
are 10,000 feet or more in height, while 
between Blackburn and Regal one peak 
is 13,400, another 12,925, and a third 
12,185 feet high. 

These latter are merely the culminat- 
ing points of a lofty ridge, and lack the 
dignity and impressiveness of the iso- 
lated summits, Sanford, Blackburn, 
Wrangell, and Drum, which are by far 
the most conspicuous mountains in the 
group. The fact that great height is 
not essential to grandeur is well illus- 
trated by Mount Drum, which is sur- 


400 


passed by none in beauty and impressive- 
ness, although but 12,000 feet high. 
Its effectiveness is due to its situation 
well out in the Copper River plain and 
to its isolation. 

The Wrangell Mountains lie between 
the meridians of 142° and 145° west 
longitude and the parallels of 61° 20’ 
and 62° 30’ north latitude. The 144th 
meridian and the 62d parallel intersect 
just east of the crater of the central 
peak—Mount Wrangell. 

The group is as distinct in form from 
the neighboring ranges north and south 
of it as it is in origin. The Chugatch 
Mountains, which lie between the Wran- 
gell Mountains and the coast, represent 
an uplifted and eroded plain, and this 
origin is now recorded in the level sky- 
line presented by the tops of the indi- 
vidual peaks and ridges which make up 
the range as a whole. 

The Alaskan Mountains to the north- 
west owe their relief to profound frac- 
turing of the earth’s crust, the rocks to 
the north of the break being lifted 
high above those to the south. Ero- 
sion, acting on this broken edge, has 
carved the serrate crest as we now see 
it, leaving the areas of harder rock in 
high relief. 

The Wrangell Mountains, on the 
other hand, are for the most part masses 
of lava and volcanic mud, which have 
been piled up on an earlier surface, of 
considerable diversity, burying the old 
land forms and substituting for fhem 
the present splendid group. 

The heights rise from the valley of 
the Copper River, which along the west 
base of the mountains stands at from 
500 to 1,500 feet above sea-level. This 
valley is a gently sloping, moss-covered, 
lake-dotted plain, in somber green, ac- 
centuating by its level character and its 
dull coloring the great heights and the 
dazzling white of the adjacent summits. 

Indian travelers say that Mount Ev- 
erest is dwarfed by the elevation of the 
land mass from which it rises and by 


Tue NarionaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


the surrounding close-set peaks, which 
are but little lower than Everest itself. 
At Yakutat, one is in doubt at first as 
to which of the great summits in sight 
is St Elias. Logan’s superior height 
was recognized only after the angles to 
its top were solved. McKinley alone 
stands out in solitary grandeur. But 
each of the four striking peaks of the 
Wrangell group has its own individ- 
uality and seems to accentuate, not to 
dwarf, its neighbors. Each, as it were, 
serves as a scale which helps the eye to 
comprehend the magnitude of all. 

The shapes of the peaks are the com- 
bined products of vulcanism and erosion. 
Either predominating gives a‘ distinct 
type. Intermediate forms are due to 
the partial ascendency of one or the 
other force. Mount Wrangell owes its 
outlines almost wholly to voleanic ac- 
tion. Erosion has modified this original 
form but little. Mount Drum’s con- 
tour, on the contrary, is that due en- 
tirely to denuding agencies. The orig- 
inal built-up formis gone. Mount San- 
ford is a volcanic dome, one-half of 
which has been mined away by a sap- 
ping glacier. Mount Blackburn has 
been etched on all sides until only its 
summit has the gentle original slope ; 
all below this is the precipitous wall 
due to undercutting ice. 

Wrangell is a great flat cone nearly 
three miles high and eight times as 
broad. Its gently arched surface is a 
glistening snow-field, broken here and 
there by a smoking rock or touched at 
the summit by a smudge of ash from 
the crater which sends up intermit- 
tently rolling columns of smoke and 
vapor. From its eastern slope flows 
Nabesna glacier, a frozen river fifty 
miles in length. On its western face, 
in a shallow valley, a dozen jets of 
steam may be seen on a still morning 
issuing from as many vents, and the 
glaciers from this basin are black with 
the breath of the mountain. 

It is not recorded that the summit 


401 


WranGELL Mountains, ALASKA 


Mount Drum 


402 


has ever been reached. John Bremner, 
who was a prospector and a man of im- 
agination, reports that he got to within 
a mile of the top. It is probably well 
that he did not attempt the last mile. 
A report is current in the Copper Valley 
that some years ago two miners at- 
tempted to reach the crest on snow- 
shoes, but, after traveling the greater 
part of the day and finding the summit 
still distant, wisely decided to return. 

If you interview the Copper River 
native about Mount Wrangell you will 
find him reticent ; but if you finally win 
his confidence and gratitude by a square 
meal and a pipeful of tobacco without 
demanding some service in return, he 
may reward you by telling you in com- 
pact but fragmental English the native 
legend of the tragedy of the mountain. 
‘“Long time ago two Siwash go look 
see; mountain him smoke. One Si- 
wash come back. Hiyu (much) smoke. 
No good.’’ As he tells you he squats 
on his haunches in the door of your 
tent, fingers all of your personal be- 
longings, and reeks with the accumu- 
lated odors of generations of unwashed 
fish-eating ancestors. 

You are tempted to wish that more 
Siwashes had gone to the ‘‘ Mountain 
that Smokes.’’ Itisan unworthy wish. 
The native is but a brown child of the 
wilderness, curious, uncontrolled, timid, 
uncomprehending. ‘The white invader 
is feared for his numbers, his energy, 
and his ability, but he is past under- 
standing. His restless, all-sacrificing 
search for gold or copper or other use- 
less stuff, his abundance of all the 
greatly desired things—clothing, food, 
guns, tobacco—which come off the great 
water in unlimited quantities, but are 
dispensed to the needy Siwash most 
grudgingly ; his curious doctrines about 
right and wrong, and property and 
work, doctrines which he seems to ex- 
pect the native to observe, but which 
he himself so often ignores—altogether 
the white man is quite beyond native 
comprehension. 


Tue Natrona, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


FEASIBLE ROUTES FOR THE ASCENT 
OF MT WRANGELL AND THE HIGHER 
PEAKS 


But, in spite of the native’s fear of 
it, the ‘‘ Mountain that Smokes’’ should 
be climbed, and climbed soon. It will 
not bea difficult feat, and the reward 
will be unique. It is not likely that 
the summit of Mount McKinley will be 
reached at an early date, and so Mount 
Wrangell should be the first of the 
great interior peaks of Alaska to be 
scaled. The attempt is earnestly rec- 
ommended to any one of the numerous 
active mountaineering clubs of the 
United States. The line of perpetual 
snow is at about 6,500 feet, and the 
summit rises 7,500 feet above this. At 
this summit is a crater which sends out 
columns of smoke 3 miles high. The 
relation of the crater to the ice cap will 
be most interesting, and the mere feat 
of first reaching the summit of the only 
known active volcano in the interior of 
the continent north of the Mexican 
line may well appeal to any man. 

There are at least four feasible routes 
of approach. One is from a plateau at 
the head of Dadina River, between 
Mount Drum and Mount Wrangell, and 
the way leads southeastward past the 
base of Mount Zanetti, the spur to the 
summit. A temporary camp can be 
placed on the mesa at the edge of the 
ice cap from the valley of the Dadina 
or the Sanford. It may be possible to 
take horses up on this mesa from the 
Dadina Valley, but the matter has not 
been put to a practical test. From such 
a camp the march to the summit would 
be long, to or 11 miles, but would lead 
past the foot of Mount Zanetti over a 
snowfield which is very smooth. 

Two routes, either of which is prob- 
ably feasible, lead from the head of the 
valley of the Chetaslina River. The 
middle fork of this stream rises from a 
double glacier, which owes its compound 
character to a nunatak about 3 miles 
long, rising above the ice level at about 
an equal distance back from the foot of 


WrancELL Mountains, ALASKA 


the glacier. The lobe of the’ glacier, 
which lies to the west of this nunatak, 
is smooth and easily crossed. Pack 
animals could be taken over it nearly, 
if not quite, to the nunatak. Froma 
camp near the upper end of the nunatak, 
to which fuel would have to be taken, 
the ice cap is easily accessible at an ele- 
vation of about 6,500 feet and only 6 
miles, air-line distance, from the sum- 
mit. This route, however, lies across 
the crevassed basin forming the western 
face of the peak, and although most in- 
teresting, since it passes the ‘‘ Field of 
the Jets,’’ a region of steaming rock 
points, is likely to offer some difficulties 
and dangers. 

The other suggested route from the 
head of the Chetaslina follows the east- 
ern edge of the glacier and by a steep 
rock climb gains the ice, at 7,000 feet 
or over, not more than 5 miles in an 
air line fromthe summit. By traveling 
almost due east over the ice for about 4 
miles, this route would avoid the Field 
of the Jets and would converge with 
that next to be described, near a long, 
low ridge of steaming rocks which lies 
a couple of miles south of the summit 
at an elevation of 11,000 feet. 

What appeared after an inspection of 
the peak from all sides in 1902 to be 
the surest and safest route, although 
not the shortest, is from the northern 
end of the broad mesa which separates 
the Cheshnina from the Chetaslina 
drainage. Pack horses can be taken 
up on this mesa from the east fork of 
the Chetaslina and a base camp pitched 
at about 6,000 feet. From the edge of 
the ice cap, a mile above this camp, to 
the summit, is 7 miles, and the route 
lies over the long, low, smooth spur of 
which the mesa is the continuation. 
The intervening snow-field appears to 
be perfectly smooth and safe and the 
approach by it is the one recommended. 
Last summer (1yo2) members of the 
Survey party climbed this thin spur 
through rain and fog to between 7,500 
and 8,000 feet and experienced no diffi- 


403 


culty except that caused by the soft 
snow. In the course of geologic work 
the ice cap was reached and traversed 
for perhaps a mile from the nunatak at 
the head of the Chetaslina also, so that 
the lower portions of both these lines of 
advance have been tested. 

In an attempt of any of the high 
peaks of interior Alaska, it is essential 
to be on the ground ready to make the 
climb early in the season. After July 1 
the weather becomes warm and the 
snow-clad higher summits become storm 
centers, which condense the vapor from 
the heated lowlands, and as a conse- 
quence are hidden for much the greater 
part of the time in clouds. It is need- 
less to say that one cannot climb un- 
known peaks successfully through a fog 
which conceals all their features. In 
an average season, a perfectly clear day 
after July t cannot be reckoned upon 
until late in the fall, when the nights 
have lengthened and the summits are 
covered with new snow. ‘The proper 
time to climbis about June 20. In ad- 
dition to the good weather, which is 
much more probable then than later, 
the days are the longest of the year, and 
although the sun is below the horizon 
for two or more hours, there is no real 
darkness. With clear weather the air 
chills quickly at the greater altitudes as 
the sun sinks, and a crust forms over 
the snow, so that rapid progress can be 
made. ‘This is particularly important 
in climbing Wrangell, because the slopes 
of the peak areso gentle that just above 
the line of melting there is a wide zone 
of snow, which is soft and greatly im- 
pedes climbing unless a crust is formed 
over it. 

Ordinary precautions will have to be 
taken, of course, in crossing these un- 
explored snow-fields, even where no 
crevasses are visible. During 1902 two 
employés of the Survey were crossing a 
glacier on the north flank of Mount 
Wrangell to reach a high point which 
it was intended to occupy for topo- 
graphic work. ‘The snow seemed per- 


4.04 


Tue NarionaL GEOGRAPHIC MaGAZINE 


Photo by W. C. Mendenhall 


Snider's Peak, as Seen from the West 


WranGELL Mountains, ALASKA 


fectly safe, and the rope which was al- 
Ways carried on such trips was not in 
use. Suddenly the crust gave way be- 
neath the feet of the man in advance 
and he sank, but throwing out his arms 
was sustained by them until dragged 
out of danger by his companion. For- 
tunately for him, the concealed crevasse 
was narrow at the top. The rope was 
used for the rest of that day. 

After Mount Wrangell, the peak 
which will no doubt prove most inter- 
esting from the point of view of the 
mountain climber is Mount Sanford, 
the highest one in the group, 16,200 
feet above sea-level. This magnificent 
summit, when viewed from the south 
between Mounts Drum and Wrangell, 
presents an outline so totally different 
from that exhibited by its northern 
slopes that Allen in 1885, from the 
mouth of the Chetaslina, named it 
Mount Tillman, and then from the 
upper Copper, failing to recognize it, 
rechristened it Mount Sanford. His 
supposition that there were five peaks 
where there are in reality but four, 
together with the changing aspect of 
the mountains as one encircles them in 
following Copper River, led to further 
confusion. Therefore, in his sketch 
from 6 miles above the mouth of the 
Gakona, Mount Drum is called Mount 
Tillman and Mount Sanford is called 
Mount Drum. ‘The fact that Allen’s 
Mount Tillman is a myth has been a 
matter of common knowledge for some 
years. Mahlo’smapof 18y8 shows three 
peaks where Allen had four, and Mr 
R. 5. Dunn, who is now en route to 
Mount McKinley, has called attention 
to the error in a recent magazine article. 

The southern face of Mount Sanford 
is a 12,000 foot slope of 60 or 70 
degrees—practically a cliff, too steep 
even for much glacial ice to accumulate. 
This precipice faces the southwest, and 
in early summer must be scored by 
splendid and constantly recurring ava- 
lanches. ‘The ice accumulations at the 
foot of the declivity form Sanford 


4.05 


glacier, the source of Sanford river. 
In remarkable contrast to this precip- 
itous southwest slope, the cirque of 
Sanford glacier, is the northern face of 
the mountain.” Viewed from any point 
on the upper Copper River or the foot- 
hills beyond it, Mount Sanford appears 
a smooth, rounded dome of snow, so 
even, except as glacial erosion has eaten 
into it around the base, that it appears 
to be possible to travel over it in almost 
any direction. Really, however, there 
are probably few feasible approaches, 
because the smooth upper reaches of 
the mountain break off just above the 
base into cliffs. 

A glacier, which is one of the sources 
of Boulder Creek, appears from below 
to form an easy way through these en- 
circling cliffs to the even snow-fields 
above. When these are gained, reach- 
ing the summit will depend upon 
weather and preparedness. It is not 
possible to make the climb from below 
snowline in one day, and a well organ- 
ized party, equipped to stay on the 
mountain a week with an upper camp 
at 10,000 feet, will stand the best chance 
of success. 

The writer has not been nearer to 
Mount Blackburn than the head of Kot- 
sini River, a dozen miles from the peak, 
and he has not seen it except from the 
west. Viewed from this direction, its 
aspect is most forbidding. Near the top 
the slopes are gentle enough, but up to 
12,000 or 13,000 feet its western face is 
a series of crags and cliffs, scarred by 
ice falls or covered by steep, deeply 
crevassed glaciers. Its southern side is 
reported but little better, so that the 
most hopeful direction from which to 
approach it seems to be the north or 
northeast, from one of the tributaries of 
the Kennicott or of the Nabesna glacier. 
Both of these are long glaciers which 
have not been traversed, or at least we 
have no record of their exploration, so 
that in addition to the possibility of find- 
ing the mountain inaccessible after 
reaching its northern or eastern base, 


406 


there is the further possibility of diffi- 
culty in getting to this position. 

Mount Drum is lower than either 
Mount Sanford or Mount Blackburn by 
more than 4,000 feet. Its base is more 
accessible than that of any of the other 
peaks, as it stands out in the Copper 
River Valley well to the west of its com- 
panions. The air-line distance from 
Copper Center tothe summit is less than 
25 miles, and the lowest point in the 
divide connecting it with the Mount 
Sanford-Wrangell pile is about 5,000 
feet; hence one may travel entirely 
around the mountain by way of the 
Dadina and Sanford River valleys with- 
out having to make any difficult climbs. 

But this little 12,000-foot peak ap- 
pears to be one of the hardest of the 
group to scale. It is really but the 
skeleton of a mountain, having been so 
eaten away by the Nadina drainage 
that its summit is only a sharp crescent- 
shaped ridge, surrounding the amphi- 
theater in which Nadina glacier heads. 
The prospectors of the region speak of 
it appropriately as the ‘‘shell.’’ Other 
drainage than that of the Nadina has 
been active, so that all of its faces are 
steep, and the ice masses which hang on 
them are greatly crevassed. It is these 
which present the difficulties. If Drum 
were free from glaciers it would be 
merely interesting as a rock climb. As 
it is, the only route to thesummit which 
appears to be at all practicable is that 
by the ridge between the Nadina and 
Klawasina glaciers. Pack animals may 
be taken 5 or 6 miles above the foot of 
Nadina glacier, and camp established 
on a little flat just west of the glacier, 
within an air-line distance of less than 
5 miles from the summit. By climb- 
ing westward, up the valley of a little 
brook, the ridge in question may be 
reached at between 6,000 and 7,000 
feet, and, so far as may be judged from 
below, its ascent will not prove difficult 
up to 10,000 feet. Beyond that it is 
very narrow, the ice overhangs, is cre- 
vassed, and probably unsafe, but care- 


Tue Nationat GrocrapHic MaGAZzInE 


ful mountaineers may be able to make 
their way over it to the summit. 

Snider’s Peak—Little Drum, it is 
sometimes called—lies just south of the 
main peak. It is 8,300 feet high, and 
although sheathed in ice on its north 
slope, is free from it on the south and 
very precipitous. 


IMPORTANT GLACIERS OF THE GROUP 


Several of the important glaciers of 
the mountain group have already been 
mentioned incidentally. The whole 
central mountain mass above 7,000 feet 
is a nevé field above which project oc- 
casional points, too sharp to permit the 
accumulation of snow. From this cen- 
tral snow-field Alpine glaciers drain in 
all directions down canyon-like valleys 
which the glaciers themselves have 
moulded. As the divide between the 
northward and the southward flowing 
streams lies nearer the southern line of 
the group, and so near the southern line 
of the high area in which snow accumu- 
lates, it follows that the greatest glaciers 
flow to the north. The largest of these 
are the Nabesna and Chisana, ice streams 
45 and 30 miles long respectively and 
the sources of the two great branches 
of the Tanana River. 

Kennicott glacier on the south side 
of the range, draining the slopes of 
Mounts Blackburn and Regal, is prob- 
ably the third of the ice streams in 
magnitude. Then follow a host of 
smaller glaciers—Nizina, Kuskulana, 
Copper, Nadina, Jacksina—all sources 
of streams of the same name and none 
of them less than 10 miles in length. 
The glaciers of the Alps are few in 
number and insignificant in size, by 
comparison. 

From each of these glaciers flows a 
turbulent river. Usually, as it issues 
from beneath the ice foot, the stream 
spreads out over a wide flood plain, 
built up of coarse material, upon which 
it constantly shifts its numerous chan- 
nels. After a course which varies from 
a few to many miles over such a flood 


WrancGELL Mountains, ALASKA 


plain, the channels unite and enter a 
canyon cut in the flood plain material 
or in the rock beneath it, and in this 
canyon the tributary continues to or 
nearly to its junction with the master 
stream. Sometimes just above this junc- 
tion a second flood plain is developed. 

These rivers, like all others with 
glacial sources, are at their highest 
stages during midsummer, when melt- 
ing of the snow and ice is at the maxi- 
mum, and are lowest in the late winter, 
when thisisat a minimum. Inthe sum- 
mer they are muddy, overloaded with 
ground-up rock fragments; in the win- 
ter they are clear, and the trout, driven 
from them in summer, return to them. 

The greater part of the drainage of 
the Wrangell Mountains is gathered 
into the Copper River, whose basin of 
nearly 25,000 square miles includes a 
large proportion of mountainous terri- 
tory, in which glaciation is at present 
active. Amongthe largestreams of the 
continent, it is perhaps the most nearly 
purely glacial in its sources of supply, 
and a comparison of its grade, which is 
dependent, in part at least, upon this 
fact, with those of other streams be- 
comes interesting. 

The total fall of Copper River, from 
its sources in Copper Glacier to the sea, 
a distance of about 300 miles, is 3,600 
feet—an average of 12 feet per mile. 
The lower half of the river, from Copper 
Center to the mouth, has an average fall 
of nearly 7 feet per mile, while the 
upper half, between Copper Glacier and 
Copper Center, falls about 17 feet in 
each mile. 

Compare with this the fall of the 
Yukon, which between White Horse 
and the sea is approximately 1.2 feet 
per mile, and below Fort Yukon about 
.5 feet per mile, or that of the Ohio, 
which between Pittsburg and Cairo is 
.435 feet per mile. The relatively tor- 
rential character of the Copper as a type 
of glacier-fed stream thus becomes 
strikingly evident. 

Copper River drains the southern, the 


407 


western, and a part of the northern 
slope of the mountains. The central 
part of the northern face drains into the 
Tanana by its two great tributaries, the 
Nabesna and the Chisana, while some 
of the glacial drainage from the extreme 
northeastern limit of the mountains 
passes down the valley of the White to 
the Yukon. 

The district embraced by the group 
offers many attractive problems to those 
interested in physical geography or 
geology and the allied sciences. The 
problems of land forms as determined 
by vulcanism and as modified by glacial 
erosion, questions of ice accumulation 
and shrinkage, of glacial deposition, of 
the aggradation of glacier-fed streams, 
unique problems of vulcanism and gla- 
ciation, such as subglacial lava streams, 
and modifications of glaciers by the 
heat attending volcanic activity are a 
few of the questions which immediately 
occur for investigation here. 

‘The opening of the military trail from 
the port of Valdez, on Prince William 
Sound, and the establishment, by pros- 
pectors and others, of various secondary 
trails to points within the foothills of 
the Wrangell Mountains have made 
the whole region comparatively accessi- 
ble. It is quite probable that the next 
few years will see a railroad built to the 
copper properties in the Chittina Valley, 
which will remove the present necessity 
of making a trip of 150 miles by pack 
train and will place the traveler in the 
interior valley of the Copper at any 
season of the year. When that time 
comes, the Wrangell Mountains should 
prove an attractive field for students 
and for those tourists who desire to get 
a little beyond the usual summer fron- 
tier. The maps which are now drawn 
and will soon be publicly available will 
serve as guides until the time shall come 
when larger-scale work is required, 
and the preliminary geographic studies 
which have been carried out will serve 
to indicate the tenor of the closer studies 
of the future. 


artment of Agriculture 


, Dep 


kK 


From O. F. Coo 


Trees 


Rubber 


a 


Ul 
can be tapped when they are ei 


1 
after that every few months 


ion of Cast 


antat 


. 1.—A Pl 


Picture No 


The trees are about 14 


ght years 


They 


, and 


years old. 


old 


RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN MEXICO AND 
CENTRAL AMERICA 


EXT to coffee and sugar, crude 
rubber is the largest of the 
tropical imports of the United 

States. It is the only one of these three 
for which we are entirely dependent on 
foreign countries. The value of the 
crude rubber that we import every 
year, 55,000,000 pounds, reaches about 
$30,000,000, but none of it comes from 
Porto Rico or the Philippines. Over 
one-half of the total is imported direct 
from Brazil, while considerable quanti- 
ties come from the United Kingdom, 
presumably the products of her colonies, 
and from Belgium, chiefly the product 
of the Congo Free State. 

It occurred to the Department of Agri- 
culture, while pondering what new in- 
dustries might be found for Porto Rico 
and the Philippines to improve condi- 
tions on the islands, that rubber trees 
might be grown profitably on them. An 
agent of the Department, Mr O. F. 
Cook, was therefore sent to Central 
America and Mexico, where millions of 
dollars are invested in rubber planta- 
tions, to study rubber culture and to 
report on the advisability of starting 
similar plantations in our new island 
possessions. Mr Cook spent several 
months at the different rubber planta- 
tions, and his preliminary report has 
been published by the Department. 

It is yet too soon to state definitely 
whether rubber trees can be successfully 
grown in Porto Rico, but the prospects 
seem favorable for growing the Castilla 
rubber tree, as the southwestern part of 
the island is dry and hot. It should be 
noted that crude rubber may come from 
three different kinds of rubber trees, 
each requiring different climate and 
soil. ‘There is the Para rubber tree 
( Hevea), which thrives in the wet valley 
of the Amazon, but which will not grow 
in a dry climate; the Assam rubber 


(Ficus elastica) of Java, also needing a 
humid atmosphere ; and the Castilla 
rubber tree of Central America and 
Mexico, which prospers best where it is 
dry and hot and will not grow in swamps 
or wet soil. Mr Cook recommends that 
experiments be begun by planting a 
number of Castilla rubber trees in Porto 
Rico and the Philippines, but he warns 
the American public against investing 
large sums in starting rubber planta- 
tious until it has been proved that the 
rubber tree will grow successfully on 
these islands. 

The accompanying illustrations, for 
the use of which the NarronaL Gxo- 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE is indebted to Mr 
Cook, give interesting information about 
the rubber tree and the native Mexican 
method of tapping it for its milk.* 

It would seem to be a very simple 
matter to improve on the rude gashes 
made by the machete of the rubber 
gatherer, but this has not proved to be 
easy. The rubber milk is not the sap 
of the tree and can not be drawn out by 
boring holes in the trunk, as is done 
with the sugar maple. The milk is not 
in the tissues of the tree, but is con- 
tained in delicate tubes running length- 
wise in the inner layers of the bark, and 
to secure milk in any quantity it is nec- 
essary to open many of these tubes by 
wounding the bark. ‘The rubber is 
formed in floating globules inside the 
tubes and can not pass through their 
walls, so that even a suction apparatus 
would not bring it out unless the tubes 
were cut. 

The method by which the natives of 
Soconusco, Mexico, have been accus- 
tomed to extract the milk is shown in 


* Consult ‘‘ The Culture of the Central Amer- 
ican Rubber Tree.”” By O. F. Cook. U. S. 
Department of Agriculture: Bureau of Plant 
Industry—Bulletin 49. 


From O. F, Cook, Department of Agriculture 


Picture No. 2.—A Native Tapping a Castilla Rubber Tree 


At Zacualpa, Chiapas, Mexico. ‘The tree shown in this picture is a small one. Many 
of them exceed five feet in diameter, with trunks going straight up for 30 feet 


Fig. 4 


From O, F. Cook, Department of Agriculture 


Picture No. 3.—Native Method of Coagulating the Latex or Milk of 
the Rubber Tree 


Fig. 1.—Spreading latex on Calathzea leaf ; a leaf already coated shown at the right, lying in 
the sun to coagulate the rubber. Fig. 2.—Pressing the two coated leaves together to unite the 
two sheets of rubber. Fig. 3.—Pulling the leaf away from the rubber. Fig. 4.—The finished 
sample of rubber, marked by the veins of the leaf. 


From 0. F. Cook, Department of Agriculture 


Picture No. 4.—Clusters of Ripe Fruit of the Castilla Rubber Tree 


Natural size. The fruit is fleshy and of a reddish orange color 


Russer PLANTATIONS IN Mexico 


picture No. 2. The ulero makes with 
his machete diagonal lines of gashes, 
extending nearly around the tree, like 
the letter V, the point being downward. 
The milk flows down these channels to 
one side of the tree, whence it is led 
down to a cavity hollowed in the ground 
and lined with large, tough leaves. 
These are dexterously lifted up, and 
the milk is poured out into a calabash 
or other vessel and carried away to be 
coagulated. The diagonal channels are 
from two to three feet apart, and those 
of each successive tapping are inserted 
‘between the older scars. The milk will 
all run out of the tree in about an hour. 

A Castilla tree 5 feet in diameter will 
yield when first cut about 20 gallons of 
milk, making 50 pounds of rubber. The 
tree may be cut again after the lapse of 
a few months. That the trees at La 
Zacualpa shown in picture No. 1 have 
been able to survive so much of this 
barbarous treatment and are still vigor- 
ous and heavily laden with fruit seems 
to indicate great tenacity of life, and yet 
even this rough handling represents an 
improvement upon the former custom 
of cutting the trees down entirely or 
hewing steps in them for the ulero to 
climb up. Instead of the forked stick 
used as a ladder at La Zacualpa, the 
large forest trees are ascended for 30 
feet or more by means of ropes, vines, 
climbing irons, and steps cut in the 
trunk. 

The studies which the Department of 
Agriculture is making in regard to start- 
ing rubber plantations on American soil 
are specially important in view of the 
disappearance at no distant day of the 
rubber forests of Brazil and Africa, 
whence nearly nine-tenths of the sup- 
ply of rubber now comes. ‘The world 
is almost entirely dependent on savages, 
or on natives too barbarous to be called 
“civilized, to get the rubber out of the 
forests. They, tempted by the high 
price which rubber brings, swarm into 
the rubber forests and chop the trees 
down to save time in collecting the milk. 


413 


Mr K. K. Kennedy, U. S. consul at 
Para, Brazil, has recently sent to the 
Bureau of Statistics of the Department 
of Commerce and Labor the startling 
reports of two expeditions which have 
been examining conditions in the rubber 
country.* Captain Gerdeau, after ex- 
ploring, investigating, and canvassing 
the territory of the upper Amazon and 
its tributaries in the richest rubber belt 
in South America for more than a year, 
advises him that the rubber gatherers 
are cutting down the forests with amaz- 
ing rapidity and improvidence, far be- 
yond what his previous information had 
led him to expect. He expresses grave 
doubts if the supply can be kept up un- 
less stringent measures to protect the 
rubber forests be immediately taken. 

Robert Blair Ewart was a member of 
an American exploring expedition which 
started inland from Lima, Peru, crossed 
the Andes, and then descended the tribu- 
taries of the Amazon and the great river 
to Para. Mr Ewart described to Consul 
Kennedy the rubber-hunting in eastern 
Peru, along the Ucayali River, a tribu- 
tary of the Amazon: 

‘The Ucayali isa magnificent stream, 
as large asthe Mississippi, and traverses 
one of the finest rubber districts in South 
America. In all this great territory 
there is but one man who is producing 
fine rubber. All the rest are caucho 
hunters. These latter are the bane of 
the country, and have done incalculable 
damage in the past few years. They 
do not bleed the trees in the regular 
way, but cut them down and extract 
the gum by the wholesale. Thus every 
year enormous forests are destroyed, 
and each year the supply grows less and 
less and the rubber gatherers are com- 
pelled to go farther back from the 
rivers. This makes the production of 
rubber more difficult, dangerous, and 
expensive each year, and it is only a- 
question of time when this immense and 
most important rubber-producing terri- 


* Daily Consular Reports, October 21, 1903 
(No. 1780). 


404 


tory wil be entirely stripped of its 
rubber forests. I found that caucho is 
selling on these far upper rivers for 20 
to 22 soles ($10 to $11) per arroba of 
32 pounds.’’ 

Recently the French government 
started an industrial school in the Sudan 


Tue NarionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


to teach the natives the best methods for 
rubber gathering. The school has 
proved a success, as the natives soon 
realized that the practical suggestions 
they obtained at the school meant a 
better quality of rubber and hence 
greater profit to them. 


Wish, Aik Giijake IPO. Ie IDI OI 


HE latest news of the Ziegler 

Polar Expedition is contained 

in a letter to Mr Ziegler, 

written by Commander Fiala ten days 
after leaving Vardo, Norway, and re- 
ceived by Mr Ziegler in New York 
the later part of September. As far 
south as 75° north latitude the ex- 
pedition came upon a compact barrier 


Edward Haven, First Officer 
W. J. Peters, 


Captain Coffin 


of ice, which they followed to within 
sight of Nova Zembla without finding ~ 
an open lead. At the time of writ- 
ing they were returning toward the 
west, intending to try and force a way 
northward through the ice barrier be- 
tween the 46th and 47th parallels of 
east longitude. ‘The ice conditions were 
thus exceedingly unfavorable at the 


rr 


xe 

Z 

Z\ 

S 

xz 
= 
== 


Photo by W. S. Champ 


Commander Anthony Fiala 


Representative of the National Geographic Society, Chief Scientific Staffand Second in Command 


H. P. Hartt, Chief Engineer 


ZIEGLER PoLar EXPEDITION A415 


Photo by W S. Champ 


Some of the Dogs of the Ziegler Polar Expedition 


Photo by W. S. Champ 


A Deck Scene on the Amerika 


THE 


416 


NaTIonaL GeocrapHic MAGAZINE 


Photo by W. S. Champ 


S. 5. dmertka of the Ziegler Polar Expedition 


start, but probably after forcing their 
way through the barrierthey found cpen 
water beyond. Mr Fiala’s letter is as 
follows : 


BARENTS SEA, /uly 20, 7903. 
DEAR MR ZIEGLER: 

We are rapidly nearing a sail, and in 
hopes of this reaching you I write 
hastily. 

We left Archangel on the 4th of July, 
but as Mr Champ has probably told you, 
we were delayed by a storm in the 
White Sea, reaching Vardo, Norway, 
July 9. At Vardo we took on coal and 
water, leaving there the evening of the 
roth. Since then we have been skirt- 
ing the edge of the ice pack, vainly look- 
ingforalead. Wemadea direct course 
from Vardo, striking the ice at 38° 30’ 
FE. long., 75 N. lat., and then went into 
the ice to the 75° 38’; but it was so solid 
that we returned and went eastward 


and southward along the edge of the 
pack, looking for a lead, until we were 
near the shores (in plain sight) of Nova 
Zembla last night in latitude 72° 45’. 
Not finding a lead of any character 
worth going into the north ice, we are re- 
turning northward and westward, where 
we intend to push into the ice between 
the 46th and 47th parallels of E. long., 
as Captain Coffin thinks it will be the 
best place to try to force our way. 
Instead of being a particularly good 
year as to ice conditions the indications 
thus far seem to prove otherwise, and 
the strange silence, from the lack of life, 
that broods over this waste of ice is 
peculiar. Dr Shorkley said to me that 
it seemed to him like a graveyard of ice. 
We have indeed struck a peculiar sea- 
son ; numbers of dead birds strewn on 
the cakes of ice and not one polar bear 
has been sighted, and only a stray seal 
once ina great while. It either indi- 


ZAEGLER PontaR EXPEDITION 


Photo by W. S. Champ 


Embarking the Siberian Ponies at 
Solombala, Siberia 


cates immense fields of ice north or lots 
of open water. Let us hope for the 
latter. 

Everything aboard has been pleasant 
aud harmonious. Men are in splendid 
condition and happy, though impatient 
to getnorth. The horses and dogs are in 
particularly good form and we are par- 


417 


ticularly thankful for the coal we took 
on at Vardo, for we feel we shall need 
every ounce of it, as we look at the long 
unbroken mass of ice. 
Yours sincerely, 
ANTHONY FIALA. 


The Amerika has been entirely refit- 
ted the past year—new decks, new rig- 
ging, new boilers, new engines. She 
makes 8 knots ai hour without any 
help from the wind and rides very easily 
in spite of her tremendous cargo. The 
dogs and ponies were taken aboard at 
Solombala, near Archangel, and seemed 
in splendid condition. 

The expedition left Vardo in excel- 
lent spirits and excellent condition. 
Most important of all, the men and crew 
had had a chance of working together 
for several months before the actual 
start, and it was the unanimous opinion 
of all that harmony and good-will would 
continue. : 

The Amerika left Trondhjem Jun 
23, Tromso June 27, Archangel July 4, 
and Vardo July ro. 

At every port and wherever the ex- 
pedition or any members of the party 
went they were received with great 
courtesy and everything was done by the 
officials and people to help the work of 
the expedition. ‘This courteous treat- 
ment was much appreciated by all, and 
acknowledgment of this kindness to 
them is gratefully made by Mr Ziegler. 
Special thanks are due to Professor H. 
Geelmuyden, the distinguished observa- 
torist at the University of Christiania, 
for loaning the expedition a 20-cen. alt. 
azimuth circle by Repsold. 


THE MINING BUREAU OF THE PHILIPPINE 
ISLANDS 


By CuHartes H. Burritt, 


CHIEF OF THE MINING BUREAU 


lished on March 10, 1900, by 
order of Major-General Otis, U. S. 
Military Governor of the Philippines, 
and was made successor of the ‘* In- 
speccién General de Minas’”’ of the 
Spanish Philippine Government and 
with the same duties. These duties 
were divided into three divisions, viz: 

(a.) Supervision and administration 
of titles and grants. 

(6.) Supervision and direction over 
mines, including inspection, sanitation, 
and pulice. 

(c.) Geological and mineralogical sur- 
veys and scientific studies. 

These duties have nevern bee changed 
by the American Government, either 
civil or military, with the exception of 
subdivision (a) above quoted. By the 
act of Congress of July 1, 1902, the 
supervision and administration of titles, 
so far as issuance thereof is concerned, 
upon all claims for mineral lands insti- 
tuted after August 14, 1903, was vested 
in the Insular Bureau of Public Lands. 
The Spanish titles and grants remain in 
the Mining Bureau. A thorough ex- 
amination of these titles and grants 
has been made, the validity and regu- 
larity of each has been determined, and 
a bulletin has been issued by this Bureau 
with a classification of all such titles and 
grants, whether valid or invalid, and 
with full information as to their incep- 
tion, location, survey, and other steps 
of procedure. This is our Bulletin 
No. 2. 

Owing to the insurrection and dis- 
turbed conditions, but little could be 
done under subdivision (6). Many 
mining claims have been instituted and 
a vast amount of prospecting has been 


HE Mining Bureau of the Phil- 
ippine Islands was _ reéstab- 


done since the American occupation, 
and in several provinces a considerable 
amount of development work has been 
done. On the Island of Batan the 
Spanish corporation, *‘ Minas de Carbon 
de Batan,’’ with a capital of $1,000,000, 
is now developing the Spanish coal 
mining grants of Gill Brothers and are 
proceeding rapidly with a corps of em- 
ployés, consisting of Spanish and Jap- 
anese miners, and with a large force of 
native employés and laborers. The 
Villanueva and Mufoz Spanish coal 
grants on the west of the same Island 
of Batan have recently been acquired 
by the United States Government, and 
by order of the Secretary of War these 
mines are now being opened up and de- 
veloped. The work is under the super- 
vision of Lieut. H. L. Wigmore, Corps 
of Engineers, U.S. A., and I have no 
doubt of the success of this enterprise. 
Its importance from an economical and 
commercial standpoint is not less than 
its importance as an international 
factor. 

The investigation of the coal measures 
of the Philippines was the first subject 
taken up by this Bureau after its rees- 
tablishment, with a view of securing for 
the United States within its own terri- 
torial boundaries in the Orient a supply 
of steam coal that could be made avail- 
able in case of an emergency for all 
governmental purposes and especially for 
supplying coal to the Philippine and 
Asiatic Squadrons of the U. S. Navy. 
Many hundreds of documents were care- 
fully read and studied, and the result 
presented in the report on ‘‘ The Coal 
Measuresof the Philippines,’’ by Charles 
H. Burritt, 1st Lieutenant, tith U. S. 
Vol. Cavalry, officer in charge of the 
Mining Bureau, and published at Wash- 


Mininc Bureau oF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


ington in 1901. ‘This report was sup- 
plemented by a visit of inspection to the 
principal known coal deposits by Lieut. 
Edward M. Markham, Corps of Engi- 
neers, U. S. A., under directions of the 
Secretary of War. As the result of 
these investigations and reports, the 
western portion of the Island of Batan 
was recommended and selected for gov- 
ernmental experiments, and this work 
is now in progress with every prospect 
of success. 

In 1902 a field party was organized 
and sent out from this Bureau to make 
a reconnoissanice of the well-known iron 
region of Angat, Bulacan, and to sub- 
mit a report thereon as a basis upon 
which to institute and build up a sys- 
tematic geological and mineralogical 
survey of the archipelago and to dis- 
seminate such information as to the 
mineral resources and other conditions 
as to enable capital to be intelligently 
directed in the mining industry. Mr 
Hiram D. McCaskey, B. S., and the 
mining engineer of this Bureau, a grad- 
uate of the Lehigh School of Mines, 
was placed at the head of this expedi- 
tion, and his report on ‘‘A Geological 
Reconnoissance of the Iron Region of 
Angat, Bulacan,’’ a work of 62 pages, 
with 14 maps, sketches, and tables and 
41 half-tone illustrations, has just been 
issued as ‘‘ Bulletin No. 3’’ of this Bu- 
reau and from the Bureau of Public 
Printing of the Government of the Phil- 
ippines. This work covers a brief de- 
scription of the class and character of 
the field work, with subdivision, phys- 
ical and geographical, geological, litho- 
logical, and mineralogical ; with a well 
illustrated description of the iron-mining 
industry as carried on by the natives 
and which is one of the oldest mining 
industries of this archipelago. The 
Zuniga theory of the Taal volcano is 
discussed at length, and the authorities 
upon that subject are carefully com- 
pared. In addition to the iron deposits, 
the author has also treated of the gold, 
graphite, and lignite deposits of that 


419 


region, and has also added a chapter on 
lime-burning. The tables of analyses 
of ores are very complete, and the prac- 
tical questions of labor and transporta- 
tion are fully presented. The famous 
mineral springs of Bulacan are also de- 
scribed. 

The Bureau has also issued a bulletin 
(No. 1) on ‘‘ Platinum and the Associ- 
ated Rare Metals in Placer Formations ”’ 
for the use of miners and prospectors. 

This completes the publications of the 
Bureau, but it represents only a small 
portien of the work that has been done 
by the Bureau. Questions of titles have 
constantly arisen, and the manuscript 
reports on this line make several large 
volumes. The mining engineer has 
made a careful study of both the geo- 
logical and economic conditions so far 
as the same could be learned from the 
voluminous records and archives, as 
well as from prospectors and miners, 
and scientific expeditions have been 
made to Culion and Paragua, with pre- 
liminary reports thereon. ‘These expe- 
ditions, which were only cursory, to- 
gether with the field work in Bulacan 
and the study of the archives and rec- 
ords, have enabled this Bureau to frame 
and recommend to the U. S. Philippine 
Commission a proposition for the reor- 
ganization of this Bureau, transferring 
all titles to the Bureau of Public Lands, 
in order that titles on mineral lands 
may be more economically administered, 
and placing this Bureau in a condition 
to take up the work of (a) geological 
and mineralogical surveys and studies 
and (4) the promotion and encourage- 
ment of the mining industries, the work 
in the future to follow along the lines 
of state geological bureaus or state bu- 
reaus Of mines in the United States. 
That there is an urgent demand for this 
reorganization, and that under it the 
mining industry will be promoted and 
in a reasonable time become an impor- 
tant factor in these islands, the writer 
has no doubt, while the field of geolog- 
ical research is one of untold wealth. 


RECORD ASCENTS IN THE HIMALAYAS 


R WILLIAM HUNTER 
WORKMAN and Mis Fanny 
Bullock Workman, members of 
the National Geographic Society and 
authors of ‘‘In the Ice World of Hima- 
laya,’’ have completed their second con- 
secutive season of high climbing and 
exploration in the northwest Himalayas, 
in the region lying between 74° 55/ 
to 75° 40’ east longitude and 35° 45’ to 
36° north latitude. As _ previously 
stated,* their attention last year was 
given to the first exploration of the 
long Chogo Loongma glacier and its 
large terminal tributary glaciers, and 
to ascents of various peaks and passes 
on these glaciers. 

The party consisted this season of 
Doctor and Mrs Workman, J. Petigax, 
C. Savoie, and I. Petigax, guides of 
Courmayeur, and B. Hewett, of London, 
surveyor. ‘he Hoh Lumba and Sosbon 
glaciers, running northwest from the 
Bralches Valley, were first visited. 
Neither of thes: had been previously 
explored, and they were found to be of 
quite different topography from that in- 
dicated on Indian Survey Map, 27a 
N. E. Im fact, the Sosbon is sketched 
on said map only asa small branch of 
the Hoh Lumba. From the village of 
Hoh, altitude 9,400 feet, the Hoh Val- 
ley was ascended for about 8 miles to 
Nanghmah Tapsa, a grazing ground at 
11,800 feet. From here the ascent was 
continued over a large old moraine, 
covered with great blocks and well 
wooded. ‘This old moraine is followed 
by one of much newer appearance, 
covered with smaller rocks and scanty 
vegetation, and there are evident signs 
of a rapid retreat of this glacier of late 
years. Above all this was a large 
moraine ridge rising to 50 feet above 
the glacier level. Crossing this the 
real glacier was attacked at 13,000 feet. 
Beyond here, it being early summer, 
the glacier, lateral moraines, and lower 
mountain spurs were all heavily coated 


* Nat. GEoG. MaG., Vol. XIII, pp. 405-406. 


with winter snow aud snow camps wele 
every where necessary. 

One night was passed at 14,400 feet 
and two at 15,600 feet, at the base of 
the only depression in the chain of 
mighty rock needles which encircle the 
upper end of the Hoh Lumba. ‘This 
depression, instead of being a long, easy 
snow pass crossing to a glacier connect- 
ing with the Hispar glacier, as marked 
on the survey map, is an immense over- 
hanging snow cornice surmounting a 
high, difficult sérac fall. It was as- 
cended in six hours by Dr and Mrs 
Workman and guides from the highest 
camp. The height, calculated by hyp- 
someter, later compared with lower- 
station mercurial barometer readings 
taken at the same hours, was 18,600 
feet. From the great cornice overlook- 
ing an abyss of 7,000 feet a medium- 
sized glacier was observed running in a 
westerly direction, probably to the His- 
par glacier. The length of the Hoh 
Lumba from its snout to the base of the 
great col is about nine miles. On the 
west side of the southern end three 
small glaciers debouch into the main 
stream, and on the east a larger feeder 
enters near the south end. Above this 
on the east, four miles from the snout 
of the Hoh glacier, a large glacier of 
similar importance with the Hoh Lumba 
cones in, called the Sosbon. Its course 
is approximately parallel with the Hoh 
Lumba, and its length from its junction 
with this is five miles to the col at its 
source. 

Camps were established on this gla- 
cier, which was ascended and surveyed, 
and measurements and angles were taken 
to determine the rate of movement, and 
angles also taken to ascertain the heights 
of various peaks on this and on the Hoh 
Lumba. 


The middle of July the party returned 
to the chief camp of last year at 14,000 
feet on the Chogo Loongma glacier. 
Here they were imprisoned nearly the 
whole of the last two weeks of the month 


Recorp AScENTS IN THE HIMALAYAS 


by severe snowstorms. During a short 
break in the prolonged storms the only 
upper branch left unexplored last season 
was ascended. As the glacier enters 
the Chogo Loongma at over 16,000 feet 
and ends at its source, between 18,000 
and 19,000 feet, the ascent over new 
surface snow to the depth of more than 
2 feet was most laborious. At a gla- 
cier camp at 17,000 feet, one of the 
highest sun temperatures of the season 
was taken by a solar radiating ther- 
mometer—sun temperature at noon 204° 
Fahr., shade 56° Fahr. 

In August the weather conditions im- 
proved and on the oth, taking advan- 
tage of clear, settled weather, Doctor 
and Mrs Workman and guides, with 
only high climbing tents and eighteen 
coolies, left the main camp and ascend- 
ing Basin glacier, an upper branch of 
the Chogo Loongma, camped at the base 
of a high snow peak in the range sepa- 
rating this glacier from the Chogo 
Loongma. ‘The next day the ascent of 
its snow slopes was begun and camp 
brought to 18,400 feet on a small pla- 
teau. The third day, in spite of much 
opposition from coolies, a last camp was 
pushed to another snow slope at base of 
the final high cone at 19,355 feet. More 
than half the coolies were here pros- 
trated by mountain sickness. Late in 
the afternoon steps were cut by the 
guides for upward of a thousand feet 
on the ice slopes, and on the fourth day, 
leaving camp at 3 a. m. by moonlight, 
the ascent was begun. “The whole of 
this part of the climb was made in zig- 
zags over slants rising at angles of be- 
tween 60 and 70 degrees, measured by 
clinometer, and the summit, 21,770 
feet, was reached at 7 a. m. 

A narrow ridge connects this peak a 
few hundred feet below its summit to 
the north with an elevated snow plateau, 
from which rise two higher peaks. 
The party crossed the ridge and as- 


cended the second peak, the summit of, 


which was reached in three hours. The 
weather was cloudless and the view of 


421 


the northwest Himalayas unsurpassed. 
There being little wind, it was possible 
to take careful boiling point readings 
which, compared since with a mercurial 
standard at the lower station of Skardn, 
fixes the height of this mountain at 
22,568 feet. 

Mrs Workman has thus broken her 
former world record for women on 
Koser Gunge, 21,000 feet, twice on the 
same day, by 770 and 1,568 feet re- 
spectively. While she and one of the 
guides remained on this summit, Dr 
Workman and the two others crossed 
the pleateau and ascended to 23,394 feet 
on fixed peak 24,486 feet, which gives 
him the world record for men, the 
greatest height hitherto attained being 
the suinmit of Aconcagua, 22,860 feet, 
the highest of the Andes. ‘The high 
catp was again reached at 7 p. m., after 
an absence of over fifteen hours. 

After the r6th of August the whole 
camp was carried up the Balucho gla- 
cier, running east from the Chogo 
Loongma, where, after two high camps, 
a new and difficult snow pass of 17,200 
feet was ascended by the entire caravan. 
The difficult descent over a 1,000-foot 
snow wall was also accomplished after 
much argument with the coolies, and 
the expedition found itself on the third 
day at the junction of a side glacier with 
the Kero Loongma. ‘This is the first 
time that a passage over the range sepa- 
rating the Kero and Chogo Loongmas 
has been effected. 

The party next marched to the en- 
trance of the Hucho Alchori glacier, 
where they were joined by the surveyor. 
This glacier was explored for the first 
time, and a snow col 18,200 feet at its 
source ascended by Mrs Workman and 
guides. 

This seasonof climbing on new ground 
adds much valuable material to last year’s 
work. ‘The combined work of the two 
seasons makes the Workman expedition 
one of the most important exploring and 
high-climbing expeditions yet carried 
out in the northwest Himalayas. 


THE NEW CONE 


HE accompanying photographs 

by Dr E. O. Hovey show the 

¥ remarkable tooth or spine of 

solid rock that has pushed up the throat 
of Mont Pelée since the eruption of May, 
1902. The peculiar formation has been 
previously noted in this Magazine (p. 
167, April,1903). The photographs were 
taken by Dr Hovey on his recent trip to 


OF MONT PELEE 


Martinique and the West Indies in be- 
half of the American Museum of Nat- 
ural History. Dr Hovey’s report has 
recently been published in the American 
Journal of Science. 

The lofty tooth is rifted and fissured 
in every direction, and great fragments 
of it are constantly breaking off. The 
tooth rests on or is connected with fluid 


The New Spine of Mont Pelée from the Basin of the Lac des Palmistes 


Looking about S. 60° W. 
in front. 


The apex is about 358 meters (1,174 feet) above the rim directly 
The remains of Morne Lacroix are visible at the right on edge of the crater. 


Photo- 


graphed March 25, 1903, for the American Museum of Natural History by Dr E. O. Hovey. 


Tue New Cone or Mont PELEE 


lava beneath. At night the lower 
portions of it glow with light. Dr 
Hovey says that in the light of the 
rising sun the spine looks like an 
enormous white monument rising 
above the mountain. Its true color 
is more a reddish brown with a 
whitish incrustation over it. No 
one can say exactly what the na- 
ture of the spine is, but the proba- 
bilities are that it is largely pumi- 
ceous in texture. The masses con- 
stantly falling from the sides of the 
spine, which grows as rapidly as it 
wears away, will probably in time 
completely bury the old crater. 

The new cone of Mont Pelée, 
with its great protruding tooth, is 
not central within the old crater. 
It has been built up northwest of 
the center of the old crater. There 
is no central opening or pit-like 
depression in the top of the new 
cone corresponding to the general 
idea of acrater. Steam issues from 
all parts of the cone, especially 
from the top, but none from the 
tooth. 

Dr Hoyey’s subsequent studies 
of the Grande Soufriére of Guade- 
loupe and the peak of Saba on the sane 
expedition lead him to the conclusion 
that they have passed through the 
phases through which Mont Pelée is 
now passing, and that they all substanti- 
atethe cumulo-volcanotheory. ‘‘ Thisis 
especially clear in the case of the Grande 


Alaskan Boundary Decision. — The 
award of the Boundary Commission has 
defined the boundary according to the 
American.claim in practically every re- 
spect. This line is shown in a map 
published in the Natronan GEo- 
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE on page 90, March, 
1903. The award makes one change 
in this map, in Portland Canal.  Port- 
land Canal has two parallel channels, 
with four islands between them. Canada 
claimed that the northern channel and 


Looking about N. 30° W. 
March 26, 1903, for the American Museum of Na- 
tural History by Dr E. O. Hovey. 


The Top of the New Spine of Mont Pelée 
from the Crater Rim 


Photograph taken 


Soufriére, the cone of which rises above 
an old crater rim which it has buried in 
the same way that Mont Pelée is now 
striving to bury its surrounding crater- 
walls.’’ * 


* American Journal of Science, vol. xvi, 
October, 1903. 


the United States that the southern 
channel was Portland Canal and the 
boundary. By the decision Portland 
Canal—7. e., the boundary—passes north 
of Pearse and Wales Islands (which are 
the innermost islands of the four) and 
enters the ocean through Tongass Pas- 
sage, between Wales and Sitklan Islands. 
Canada thus acquires Pearse and Wales 
Islands, and the United States Sitklan 
and Kautgunut Islands, the two outer- 
most of the four islands. 


RIGEUAKD WOU EU SK G © ODE 


R RICHARD URQUHART 
GOODE, Geographer of the 
U. S. Geological Survey and 
one of the most interested members of 
the National Geographic Society since 
the organization of the Society in 1888, 
died from pneumonia at Rockville, Md., 
June 9, 1903. His death was entirely 
unexpected and came asa great shock 
after an illness of only three days. 
Mr Goode was born at Bedford, Vir- 
ginia, in 1858. After a course at the 


University of Virginia, he joined the 
Engineer Corps of the Army in 1878. 
In 1879 he became a topographer of the 
U.S. Geological Survey, and from 1882 
to 1884 was attached to the Northern 
Transcontinental Survey as engineer and 
topographer. In 1889 he was appointed 
to the rank of geographer in the Geo- 
logical Survey, and has had special 
charge of the surveys in the Pacific 
Coast States—California, Oregon, and 
Washington. 


Richard Urquhart Goode 


GEOGRAPHIC 


He was a member of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences and the author of 
several bulletins published by the Geo- 
logical Survey. 

During #g01-1903 Mr Goode was the 
chairman of the Committee on Technical 
Meetings of the National Geographic 
Society. He has been an occasional con- 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


ROFESSOR A. J. HENRY, Secre- 
tary of the National Geographic 
Society since November, 1899, because 
of the pressure of responsible official 
duties and ill-health, was obliged to re- 
sign from the secretaryship October 2, 
1903. The prosperity and continued 
activity of the National Geographic 
Society during the last four years have 
been largely due to the personal atten- 
tion and zeal which Professor Henry 
has freely and constantly given to the 
Society. His resignation has been ac- 
cepted by the Board of Managers with 
exceeding regret. 

The new Secretary of the Society is 
Hon. O. P. Austin, who was unani- 
mously elected by the Board of Man- 
agers. Mr Austin is Chief of the Bu- 
reau of Statistics of the Department of 
Commerce and Labor, and has been a 
member of the Board of Managers of 
the Society since January, 1903. By 


GEOGRAPHIC 


Elements of Geology. By Joseph Le 
Conte. Revised and partly rewritten 
by Herman Le Roy Fairchild. Fifth 
edition. With over 1,000 figures in 
ne: iWesxtt, Io, xo ae GG. Os ©) 
inches. New York: D. Appleton & 
Co. 1903. $4.00. 

This fifth edition of a work which for 
25 years has been the standard text- 
book of geology is most welcome. Prof. 
H. L. Fairchild, who has edited this 
latest edition and partly rewritten the 


LITERATURE 4.25 


tributor to the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
MaGaAziIne, his last article being pub- 
lished in January, 1900, ‘‘ The Idaho- 
Montana Boundary Line.”’ 

Mr Goode was a man of exceedingly 
attractive personality, whose sudden 
death in the prime of life is mourned by 
a large circle of warm friends. 


means of the original monthly mono- 
graphs and other contributions of the 
Bureau of Statistics, as well as by his 
personal publications, he may be said to 
have originated a new school of com- 
mercial geography in the United States. 


The expedition of Dr Frederick Cook 
for the ascent of Mount McKinley, 
and also the expedition of Miss Annie 
S. Peck for the ascent of Mount Sorata, 
were unsuccessful in gaining the sum- 
mits of these lofty mountains. 


A new division has been established in 
the U.S. Geological Survey, entitled 
the ‘‘ Division of Alaskan Mineral Re- 
sources,’’ which will embrace all of the 
investigations and surveys being carried 
on in Alaska. ‘This division is codrdi- 
nate with the others of the geologic 
branch of the Survey, and its chief will 
report to the director. Mr Alfred H. 
Brooks has been made chief of the new 
division. 


REA WIRSE: 


volume, isthe head of the department of 
geology at the University of Rochester 
and formerly Secretary of the Geolog- 
ical Society of America. He is emi- 
nently qualified to bring the work down 
to date and to incorporate the latest 
theories and conclusions, giving propor- 
tionate weight to each new hypothesis 
advanced since the last edition of the 
work. One of the most important of 
these is the theory of Prof. I. C. Cham- 
berlin concerning the origin of the earth. 


426 
He opposes the nebular theory of the 
earth’s origin and asserts instead the 
‘“planetesimal’’ hypothesis. Accord- 
ing to this theory, ‘‘the earth, and the 
moon as well, have grown by slow ac- 
cretion, or infall, of small, cold, discrete 
particles (planetesimals), which formed 
the earth-moon ring or zone. ‘The ocean 
and the atmosphere have slowly accu- 
mulated from the gases originally held 
in the planetesimals, being forced to the 
earth’s surface by interior consolidation 
due to gravity. The heat of the earth’s 
interior is, under this theory, due to 
gravitational compression similar to the 
production of the sun’s heat.’’ ‘The 
oceanic stage was 1eached long before 
the earth attained its present size. To 
summarize, the Chamberlin school be- 
lieve that the outside of the earth has 
always been cold, and that the heat 
inside is due to gravitational compres- 
sions. ‘The nebular theory is that the 
globe was once a fiery mass. ‘The out- 
side has cooled, but the inside is still as 
hot as it was eons ago. The planet- 
esimal theory is unsettling some long- 
accepted theories of geology. 


Geography of Commerce. By Spencer 
Trotter. With many maps and illus- 
trations. Pp. xxiv -+ 410 5%x8 
inches. New York: The Macmillan 
Co., 1903. $1.10 net. 

As the author very correctly remarks 
in the preface of this volume, ‘‘ The un- 
related facts of commerce have slight 
educational value ; they should be made 
to illustrate some underlying principle, 
to make clear a natural law, to stand in 
relation to the great stream of causes 
and effects.’’ Dr Trotter has kept this 
principle in mind while writing his com- 
mercial geography ; when he describes 
the great business centers or the princi- 
pal producing areas of the country, he 
invariably explains what causes, physi- 
cal, political, etc., make them promi- 
nent. The result is he has produced a 
book that not only describes the special 
industries and occupations of the various 


Tue Nationa, GeocrapHic MAGAZINE 


sections of the United States and of the 
world, but also imparts a great many 
facts about the physical and political 
geography of the countries. The illus- 
trations, diagrams, and references are 
admirably chosen. The one serious 
criticism that might be made of the 
volume is that the author has tried to 
include too much information ; his chap- 
terssometimes resemble condensed cyclo- 
peedic articles; the style is also heavy, 
so that while the book will be a useful 
help to the teacher it may prove rather 
dull for the pupil. 


The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803. Ex- 
plorations by early navigators, de- 
scriptions of the islands and their 
peoples, their history, and records of 
the Catholic missions, as related in 
contemporaneous books and manu- 
scripts, showing the political, eco- 
nomic, commercial, and religious con- 
ditions of those islands from their 
earliest relations with European na- 
tions to the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century. ‘Translated from the 
originals (Spanish, French, Italian, 
Latin, etc. ), many of which are now 
published for the first time. Edited 
and annotated by Emma Helen Blair, 
A. M., of the State Historical Soci- 
ety of Wisconsin, assistant editor of 
The Jesuit Relations and Allied Docu- 
ments, and James Alexander Robert- 
son, Ph. B., with historical introduc- 
tion and notes by Edward Gaylord 
Bourne, Professor of History in Yale 
University ; also a full bibliography 
and analytical index. With maps, por- 
traits, and other illustrations. Fifty- 
five volumes, large 8vo, about 325 
pages per volume. Cleveland, Ohio: 
The Arthur H.ClarkCompany. 1903. 
$4.00 ef per volume. 

The purpose of this magnificent series 
of volumes is to place within reach of 
the American public the most important 
of the hundreds of manuscripts, letters, 
and documents relating to the Philippine 
Islands and written between 1493 and 


GEOGRAPHIC 


1803. The writers were mainly sol- 
diers, government officials, and ecclesi- 
astics of the various orders. Some of 
the letters are personal and others ad- 
ministrative reports and recommenda- 
tions. Five volumes have been pub- 
lished, and others will follow monthly. 
These five alone contain much informa- 
tion about the early conditions on the isl- 
ands that cannot be obtained elsewhere. 

The Spaniards in the Philippines from 
the very first conceived a great contempt 
for the Chinese across the China Sea. 
One general offered, with less than 60 
good Spanish soldiers, to march from 
Canton to Peking and subdue the whole 
empire, though there were ‘‘ many very 
populous cities on the way’’ and the 
king was ‘‘ well prepared for war and 
the frontiers are well fortified with many 
forts with artillery and garrisons wherein 
strict watch is kept.’’ Other generals 
repeatedly urged the conquest of the 
Chinese Empire, and every one guar- 
anteed to do it with less than 2,000 or 
3,000 men. This was during the last 
half of the sixteenth century when Spain 
was too much occupied with her Euro- 
pean designs to spare the men or money 
to enter China. 


The Training of Wild Animals. By 
Frank C. Bostock, edited by Ellen 
Velvin. Illustrated. Pp. xvii + 256. 
5x7 inches. New York: The Century 
Co., 1903: 

A book on this subject by the cele- 
brated trainer, Frank C. Bostock, is 
not only interesting, but gives much in- 
sight about the characters of the larger 
animals. Temperaments and disposi- 
tions differ as much among lions or 
tigers or other animals as among men. 
Cruelty is useless as well as dangerous 
in training the great beasts. Intelli- 
gence, pluck, vigilance, and patience 
are the requisites of a trainer. 

“There are three essentialsin the care 
and feeding of wild animals—good food, 
cleanliness, and exercise. Food and 
cleanliness come first, but exercise is 


~ 


LITERATURE AED 


nearly as important, and this is one of 
the main reasons why animals in travel- 
ing shows are so much healthier and 
stronger than-those kept in zoological 
paiks. In the parks they get food and 
cleanliness, but little exercise ; for wild 
animals are proverbially lazy, and, un- 
less compelled by hunger or force of cir- 
cumstances, will not exert themselves 
in the least, preferring to lie about and 
sleep rather than even to walk round 
their cages.’ 

In a chapter on ‘‘ How Wild Animals 
are Captured,’’ Mr Bostock tells how 
the natives in India catch tigers : 

‘““The leaves of the sycamore and 
large plantain are smeared with a sticky 
substance and left in the trail of the 
tiger. The moment the animal puts 
his foot on one of these leaves he im- 
mediately rubs it over his head in order 
to get rid of it. This naturally makes 
his head sticky and uncomfortable, 
which causes him to roll on the ground. 
By doing this he becomes covered with 
the leaves, and when he is mad with 
rage the natives come cautiously up and 
cover him with strong nets and sack- 
bayer,” 


Texas. By George P. Garrison. With 
map. Pp.v+320. 5x7inches. Bos- 
ton: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1903. 
$1.10 nel. 

The book is a disappointment, or per- 
haps it would be more just to say the 
title isa misnomer. ‘The romantic his- 
tory of the great territory is well told, 
but the author stops there. A single 
chapter of 12 pages is all he has to say 
of the tremendous development of the 
state since 1876. A few paragraphs 
only are devoted to describing what 
Texas is today. There is hardly a word 
about her unrivaled natural resources, 
which are going to make her the great- 
est producer among the states. The 
reader wants to know not only how the 
Texan won his freedom, but how he 
developed the state after it was won 
and what the state is now. 


PROGRAM OF MEETINGS 
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, 


HE National Geographic Society has re- 
cently moved into its new home, the 
Gardiner Greene Hubbard Memorial 

Hall, Sixteenth and M streets. As the build- 
ing is not entirely completed, the formal open- 
ing of the hall will be deferred for the present. 

The National Geographic Society presents 
during the season of 1903-1904 three courses 
of meetings—a Popular Series of ro illustrated 
lectures, a Scientific Series of 1o meetings, and 
an Afternoon Series of 5 popular lectures. 

The Society aims to present in the Popular 
Course subjects of a geographic character that 
possess an immediate interest for the public. 

The Scientific Meetings are planned particu- 
larly for men actively engaged in geographic 
work. While thése meetings are designed for 
scientific workers, they have proved during 
the last two winters of great interest to a large 
number of others, who do not profess to be 
geographers, but who wish to follow what is 
being done by the scientific departments of 
the government and by specialists throughout 
the United States. 


POPULAR COURSE 


The lectures in the Popular Course will be 
delivered in the National Rifles Armory, 920 
G street, at 8 p. m., on the following dates : 

Saturday, October 24.—‘‘Arctic Exploration.’’ 
By Commander Robert E. Peary, U. S. N. 
Illustrated. 

Friday, November 13.—‘‘On the action of 
Radium, Roentgen Rays, and Ultra Violet 
Light upon minerals, with radium of 300,000 
and 1,800,000 activity.’’ By Mr George F. 
Kunz and Dr Charles Baskerville. 

Friday, November 27.—‘‘ Taking the Census 
of the Filipinos.’? By Mr Henry Gannett, of 
the U. S. Geological Survey Illustrated. 

Saturday, December 12. — ‘‘ Marches and 
Movements of Arnold and André.’ By Mr 
W.W. Ellsworth, of the Century Co. Illus- 
trated. 

Announcement of definite dates for the fol- 
lowing lectures in this course will be made later: 

“Joys of the Trail,’ by Mr Hamlin Gar- 
land, author of ‘‘The Captain of the Gray 
Horse Troop,’’ etc. Illustrated. 

“‘Conditions in Macedonia,’’? by Dr Edwin 
A. Grosvenor, of Amherst College. Illustrated. 

“The Louisiana Purchase Exposition,’’ by 
Hon. David R. Francis, President of the Lou- 
isiana Purchase Exposition. Illustrated. 

“Travels in Arabia and Along the Persian 
Gulf,’ by David G. Fairchild, Special Agent 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Il- 
lustrated. 

Provisional arrangements have also been 
made for addresses on— 

Little Known Peoples of Mexico. 

Russia and Japan in Korea. 

The Alaskan Boundary Decision. 


OF NATIONAL 
1903-1904 
SCIENTIFIC COURSE 


The first three meetings of this course will 
be held in the Assembly Hall° of the Cosmos 
Club, Fifteenth and H streets. The succeed- 
ing meetings will be at the new home of the 
Society, Hubbard Memorial Hall. 

November 20.—‘‘ European Methods of 
Checking Advancing Sand Dunes.”’ A. S. 
Hitchcock, Assistant Agrostologist, Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

December 4.—‘‘ The Work of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry.’’ Dr B. T. Galloway. 

December 18.—‘‘ Early Spanish Cartography 
of the New World,”’ by Prof. E. Ll. Stevenson, 
of Rutgers College. 

At later meetings the geographical work of 
the Bureau of Insular Affairs, of the U. S. Fish 
Commission, of the National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, of the Biological Survey, of the Bureau 
of Immigration, and of the Bureau of Statistics 
of the Department of Commerce and Labor 
will be discussed. 


AFTERNOON COURSE 


The general subject of the Afternoon Course 
of popular lectures is ‘‘ The Growth of Diplo- 
macy.’’ The special topics and the names of 
the speakers will be announced in a later pro- 
gram. The first of the series will be given on 
Tuesday, February 23, and the succeeding 
lectures on March 1, 8, 15, and 22. 

These lectures will be illustrated. 


LECTURE TICKETS 


Each member of the Society can purchase 
one season ticket, admitting two persons to 
all lectures, for three dollars. 

Persons not members of the Society may 
purchase one ticket, admitting two persons to 
all lectures, for six dollars. 

Single admission tickets, at fifty cents each, 
may be obtained at Hubbard Memorial Hall 
or at the lecture-hall door. 


APPLICATIONS FOR MEMBERSHIP 


Applications for membership in the Society 
should be sent to the Secretary, who will pre- 
sent all nominations to the Board of Managers 
for action by them. The dues for members 
are two doilars per annum. All members re- 
ceive the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, 
an illustrated monthly, issued by the Society. 
Annual dues may be commuted and life mem- 
bership acquired by the payment of fifty dol- 
lars. The membership fee of two dollars, for 
persons elected to the Society in November 
and December, includes all dues to January 1, 
1905. 


Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5 P. M. Telephone, North 306 


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BOARD OF MANAGERS 


3901-1903 1902-1904 1903-1905 


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ASIA AND 


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Map of the Philippines 6 feet 2 inches x 3 feet). 
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474 
- . ’ Pesiew 'y £4 

Published by the National Gebcienkic Bacinty: 


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WILLIS L. MOORE _ PRE PRT atl <7 
Chief of the Weather Saas U. s. Ae sy One 
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| AASHIN GTON, z 


Voi. XIV, No. 12 


a 


DHE VALUE OF ARCTIC EXPLORATION*® 


WASHINGTON 


GEOGRAP ENC 
MAGA ZIUNIE 


DECEMBER, 1903 


ae 


By CoMMANDER RosBerT E. Peary, U. 5S. N. 


first public exposition of the pres- 

ent phase of Arctic exploration 
and my own plans for the coming season 
should be given in the National Capital 
and under the auspices of the National 
Geographic Society. It is unnecessary 
for me to note here the continued and 
unfailing interest in and courtesy to- 
ward my Arctic work which has been 
shown by this Society during the past 
twelve years. You are well aware of it; 
I am well aware of it. 

I shall endeavor to place clearly before 
you tonight the plan of my campaign, 
and the means by which I hope to ac- 
complish the object which you all know 
that I have before me. I hope that I 
may be fortunate in sending every one 
of you away with definite ideas, which 
will enable him or her to keep in touch 
with events as they materialize during 
the next two or three years. 


EARLY PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY 


if is entirely appropriate that the 


Before taking up present plans, let us 
go back a bit. Some forty-five centu- 
ries ago the known world lay within a 
little circle whose circumference touched 


the Black and Caspian seas, the head of 
the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, and 
the eastern end of the Mediterranean. 
Centuries later the fearless Phoenicians 
had dared the terrors of the infinite 
ocean which lay beyond the Pillars of 
Hercules, and sailed along the coasts 
both north and south. East they had 
pioneered the way toIndia. ‘The fabled 
voyages of Ulysses and Jason dwindle 
beside their splendid distances. Still 
later came the work of the great explorer- 
conquerors, Alexander and Ceesar, open- 
ing up far-distant lands as the Phceni- 
cians opened up far-distant seas. 

Then came that great burst of explo- 
ration, the principal facts of which we 
know so well. Vasco de Gama to the 
south; Othere and the Vikings to the 
north, Erik and Leif, Columbus and 
Cabot to the west, lifted Africa, the 
northern headlands of Europe, and the 
western world from the mists. 

Magellan, following close upon their 
heels, circled the globe, and the world, 
as we know it now, lay revealed in its 
rough, broad masses. 

Since then exploration has, of neces- 
sity, been a work of large details, baring 


*An address before the National Geographic Society, October 24, 1903. 


430 


the hearts of continents, and pushing 
northward and southward, till today 
only the northern and southern apices 
of the earth still hide in the mists and 
gloom of the polar nights. 

A little less than four centuries ago 
the first expedition started out toward 
the North Pole. Since that time, with 
periods of greater or less intensity, prac- 
tically all the civilized nations of the 
earth have made attempts to reach that 
charmed spot. 

Millions have been expended in the 
efforts, and, though they have brought 
back information and accessions to sci- 
entific knowledge which have fully re- 
paid the expenditures, the main object 
remains still unattained. The ablest 
writers, scientists, geographers, states- 
men, and rulers have been interested in 
the matter, and have urged the prose- 
cution of the work with all the eloquence 
at their command. Many of their re- 
marks upon the subject have become 
historic. 


THREE NORTH POLAR ROUTES 


Asa result of all these explorations 
extending through nearly four centu- 
ries, the possible routes to the North 
Pole have dwindled to three. In my 
own personal opinion, they have dwin- 
dled totwo, but I notethe three. First, 
the drift method as devised, inaugu- 
rated, and put into execution by Nan- 
sen. The possibilities of this method 
are acknowledged by every one, but it 
by no means follows that another ship, 
or even the /vam herself in a second 
attempt, would be as fortunate as she 
was in the first voyage. Again, it re- 
quires a man of exceptional tempera- 
ment and a crew of almost superhuman 
qualities to undertake a voyage which 
means that for four or five years at 
least ship and people are but a helpless 
bit of flotsam entirely at the mercy of 
the ice in which they are drifting and 
practically unable to control their own 
fortunes or contribute by their efforts 


THe Nationa, GeocraPHic MaGAZzINnE 


to success. Presumably Nansen and 
Sverdrup are advocates of this route ; 
yet neither has, to my knowledge, ex- 
pressed a desire to repeat the experience 
of the /vam’s voyage. Bernier is re- 
ported as contemplating a repetition of 
the voyage. 

The second route is the so-called 
Franz Josef Land route. Wellman, 
Baldwin, and Mr Ziegler are advocates 
and adherents of this route. If there 
are others, I do not recall them at pres- 
ent. 

Payer and Weyprecht, Leigh Smith, 
Jackson, Wellman, Abruzzi, and Bald- 
win have all exploited the Franz Josef 
Land route with greater or less success. 
Of ,these various expeditions, however, 
Abruzzi’s is the only one that has suc- 
ceeded in pushing beyond the northern 
limit of the Franz Josef Archipelago. 
He is not at all in favor of this route. 
In fact, he uncompromisingly advocates, 
in words I shall quote to you later, the 
third—the Smith Sound, or ‘‘Ameri- 
can’’ route. 


PLANS FOR COMING EXPEDITION 


To come down to the present, I as- 
sume that all of my hearers are familiar, 
in a general way, with what I shall at- 
tempt to do and how I shall attempt to 
do it, but I have noticed so many mis- 
apprehensions as to details on the part 
of otherwise well-informed people, that 
I feel a brief exposition of certain points 
may not be out of place. 

I plan to take two ships—one a 
steamer with engines of maximum 
horse-power and minimum weight and 
bulk, and an auxiliary vessel to carry 
coal. With the steamer I plan, in the 
summer of 1904, to push up Smith 
Sound, Kennedy Channel, and Robeson 
Channel, and then to station her for 
the winter on the north coast of Grant 
Land, carrying her, if possible, farther 
north than the A/ert or the Polaris. If 
she can get me as far as that, I do not 
care what becomes of her—she will 


Tue Vatue or Arctic ExPpLoRaTION 


have served her purpose of getting me 
to 82° 50’, Cape Joseph Henry, which 
will be my base of action. ‘The second 
vessel will carry a large freight of coal, 
which will be landed on Grant Land, 
near the northern entrance of Robeson 
Channel. With this reserve of coal I 
will not have to economize the fuel of 
my steamer, but can keep the furnaces 
and engines going at utmost tension 
through the ice. ‘The reserve will also 
be there to take my steamer back after 
her work is done, if she is still alive. 
From Cape Joseph Henry the march 
toward the Pole will begin in 1905. 
The distance from this point to the Pole 
and back again is less than the average 
distance of my four sledging trips in 
1892, 1895, Igoo, and 1902. ‘There is 
no reason why I should not equal this 
distance on my next sledging trip, thus 
gaining the Pole and getting back again 
in one season of roo days. I shall take 
my Eskimos with me to my northern 
base. 

On my return to Cape Joseph Henry 
after the polar dash, I plan to return in 
my steamer from that point if conditions 
are favorable. If the ice is impenetra- 
ble or my steamer is unable to carry me, 
I shall proceed by land southward to 
Cape Sabine, over the route which I 
laid out and which I have traveled so 
often in the past. At Sabine my aux- 
iliary vessel would meet me and bring 
me home. 

The principal departures in my new 
plan are: First, using a powerful 
steamer to force my way through the 
ice, instead of a sailing ship with aux- 
iliary engines; and, second, making my 
base on the shore of the Polar Sea, 
more than 200 miles north of my pre- 
vious base at Cape Sabine. 

Abruzzi’s remarks upon the subject 
of the attainment of the Pole are partic- 
ularly valuable as well as extremely in- 
teresting. His words are given in full: 

‘“Tt would be useless to repeat the at- 
tempt (of reaching the Pole) by follow- 


431 


ing the same plan (the route from 
Franz Josef Land). It would, at most, 
be possible to push a few miles farther 
towards the north if the ice of the Arctic 
Ocean was jn an unusually favorable 
state ; but the results would not afford 
any compensation for the fatigue and 
privations undergone. While follow- 
ing, therefore, the invariable plan of 
setting out from some point on land, and 
not from a ship drifting on the ice, on 
account of the reasons put forth in the 
first chapter of this work, it will be 
necessary to find some other method of 
shortening the distance which has to be 
traveled with sledge. What I should 
recommend would be to sail along the 
western coast of Greenland to the north 
of Kennedy Sound, where it ought to 
be possible, under favorable conditions, 
to go to a still higher latitude than that 
reached by the A/er? off Grant Land.”’ 

This is the plan of campaign which 
Assistant Secretary Darling has been 
pleased to commend, and for the execu- 
tion of which he has granted the neces- 
sary leave. ‘This is the plan which has 
the approval and sympathy of President 
Roosevelt. 

Assistant Secretary Darling, in grant- 
ing leave for the purpose of this expe- 
dition, has continued the traditions of 
the Navy Department, and has associ- 
ated himself with Dobbin, Kennedy, 
Robeson, and Chandler, all of whose 
names are inscribed on our Arctic charts. 
He has also put himself in line with a 
long list of British Lords of the Ad- 
miralty, who have seen the moral as 
well as the material utility of Arctic 
exploration, and have fostered and en- 
couraged it with all the means at their 
command. 

President Roosevelt, in expressing his 
sympathy and approval of the work (as 
was naturally to be expected from his 
big, active temperament), associates 
himself with a long list of illustrious 
names in the past—Ferdinand of Spain, 
Charles V, Henry VII, Elizabeth, etc., 


432 


all patronsof exploration. He hasalso 
abundant company among foreign rulers 
of the present time. The expeditions 
of Scott, Drygalski, Nordenskjold, Nan- 
sen, Sverdrup, and De Gerlache have 
had respectively the strong personal 
support and approval of Edward of 
England, William of Germany, Oscar 
of Sweden and Norway, and Leopold of 
Belgium. Charcot’s French expedition 
has the lively support and approval of 
President Loubet. 

It may possibly interest you to know 
that up to the present time editorial com- 
ment from over 500 different newspapers 
throughout the country have come to 
my eye, and there is not a hostile note 
among them; but two or three points 
have been brought up in these notices 
which it may be well to touch upon 
briefly. I do not speak of them in a 
captious mood, but with a desire to set 
the points straight. 

One is the statement of the President 
of the Royal Geographical Society of 
London, that ‘‘ after Nansen’s voyage, 
there is no longer any geographical ob- 
ject in going to the North Pole, except 
for the sake of deep-sea soundings, for 
it is merely a point in the polar ocean, 
the economy of which has been made 
known by Nansen. ‘That great explorer 
finally removed the veil which concealed 
the secret of the Arctic regions.’’ 

The President of the Royal Geo- 
graphical Society is a strong personal 
friend of mine, but I cheerfully disagree 
with him on some points, and particu- 
larly the one which assumes that we 
have practically reached the North Pole, 
and, in substance, know all that is nec- 
essary to know about it. I have never 
been entirely in sympathy with the 
claims put forth immediately after Nan- 
sen’s return from his voyage in the 
Fram, that he had practically reached 
the Pole; that we now knew everything 
that it was necessary to know in regard 
to that region, and that any further 
efforts were not worth while. 


Tue Nationa GreocraPHic MacGaZIngE 


A distance of 260 miles from the Pole 
is a long ways from the actual attain- 
ment of the Pole, and to assert that the 
secret of the Pole has been penetrated 
and the veil lifted, at a range of 260 
miles, and that the economics of the 
polar basin have been revealed, when 
3,000,000 square miles of it have not 
been trodden by human foot or seen by 
human eye, is an enthusiastic view. 


ERRONEOUS THEORIES OF EXPLOR- 
ERS AND GEOGRAPHERS 


There is no portion of the earth’s sur- 
face where it is more distinctly impossi- 
ble to prophesy or forecast what is be- 
yond the horizon of actual vision than 
inthe Arctic regions. The truth of this 
statement has been most strikingly ex- 
emplified in the past. 

In 1818 Sir John Ross made a voyage 
to Baffin Bay, and returning reported 
that body of water to be a closed sea. 
To the westward, at the head of an inlet 
which he called Lancaster Sound, he 
showed on his chart a striking range of 
mountains. 

A few years later Parry entered the 
Sound, and before a favoring wind went 
spanking away to the westward beyond 
the hundredth meridian, and never saw 
these mountains. Later explorations 
showed the great inlet of Smith Sound 
extending, as we now know, to the cen- 
tral polar basin, and Jones Sound pene- 
trating far to the northwestward, also 
leading from this ‘‘ closed sea.’’ 

Again it was conclusively determined 
theoretically, by geographers, that the 
interior of Greenland was a fertile, or at 
least an ice-free country, surrounded by 
an ice barrier near the coast. Further 
explorations show the interior to be ab- 
solutely and completely buried under an 
enormous ice-cap. 

Kane and Hayes stood upon the shores 
of the open polar sea, as they supposed ; 
yet that open polar sea has not only re- 
treated but absolutely disappeared before 
the footsteps of subsequent explorers. 


Tue Vaturt or Arctic ExpLoRATION 


Petermann, one of the greatest of 
geographers, proved conclusively, in a 
theoretical way, that Greenland was one 
extremity of a great Arctic continent 
extending across the Pole, and Wrangel 
Land the other. Later the Corwin de- 
termined Wrangel ‘‘Land’’ to be an 
almost insignificant island of contracted 
dimensions, and we know now that 
Greenland ends 450 miles short of the 
Pole. 

For years Franz Josef Land was sup- 
posed to be the southern extension of an 
Arctic continent, yet the 77am drifted 
across its meridian north of it, seeing 
no land ; so the instances could be du- 
plicated. 

As a matter of fact, there may be 
land within 30 miles of Nansen’s or 
Abruzzi’s farthest, and yet neither of 
them the wiser for it. Until we reach 
the Pole no one can say what. there is 
there, whether land or water. 

In the light of these facts, it appears 
that one man’s views are as good as an- 
other’s, assuming the men to be of equal 
intellectual caliber. 

I feel, therefore, that the opinions of 
Assistant Secretary Darling are entitled 
to as much weight as those of Sir Clem- 
ents or other geographers. To a care- 
ful and enthusiasticstudy of Arctic voy- 
ages, extending over a number of years, 
Judge Darling brings deep thought, 
clear perception, exceptional ability, 
and the judicial bent of long legal train- 
ing. He is strongly impressed with the 
great probability of finding land in the 
central polar basin. 

For myself, as a practical worker in 
the field, taking what I find rather than 
theorizing as to what I ought to find, I 
recognize fully this probability; and 
that I have not urged it—in fact, have 
leaned the other way—-is due to the 
confirmed pessimism which long years 
of Arctic work and disappointments 
have taught me—pessimism as to any 
conditions which will simplify or render 
easier the work I have laid out for my- 
self. 


a8) 


The existence of land anywhere be- 
tween the northern shore of Grant Land 
and the Pole would so greatly simplify 
my work and reduce its difficulties that 
I do not let myself dwell upon it. But 
the possibility is there; an isolated isl- 
and continent, an Arctic Atlantis, with 
a fauna and flora of its own, with one 
day and one night in the year, lying 
there through the blinding days and 
opaque nights of countless geologic 
ages, as completely isolated from the 
world as if it were on Mars. 

Think of the satisfaction of lifting 
such a land out of the heart of the 
polar sea with the Stars and Stripes of 
‘‘Old Glory.’’ Think of writing upon 
that land some name to endure indelibly 
till that day when ‘‘the heavens shall 
wither like a scroll,’’ to show forever 
that we own the top of the earth. Be- 
lieve me, there is room yet in this pro- 
saic world for a new sensation. 


NORTH POLE THE LAST GREAT GEO- 
GRAPHICAL PRIZE 


My statement that the North Pole is 
the last great geographical prize which 
the earth has to offer has also been crit- 
icised in some quarters, and it is claimed 
that it is nonsense to say that the North 
Pole is a greater prize than the South 
Pole. Irepeat advisedly that the North 
Pole is the last great geographical prize 
which the earth has to offer. 

That the particular mathematical point 
of the North Pole possesses greater in- 
terest or value than the South Pole is 
not asserted, but the North Pole is that 
apex of the earth which is in the center 
of the hemisphere of civilization. The 
North Pole has been sought by men for 
nearly four centuries ; the South Pole 
for less than a century. The North 
Pole has a striking place in history, in 
literature, in poetry, in romance. It 
has been the subject of infinite specula- 
tion, and, finally, when the North Pole 
has been attained, the attainment of the 
South Pole will follow naturally and rap- 
idly and will attract much less attention. 


434 


In this connection it is well to note 
also a popular misconception, namely, 
that the attainment of the South Pole 
is more difficult than the attainment of 
the North Pole. This is not so. In 
spite of the close approximation to the 
North Pole by recent expeditions, the 
actual attainment of the North Pole is 
avery different proposition from the at- 
tainment of the South Pole and much 
more difficult. The conditions are al- 
most diametrically opposite. In the 
case of the North Pole it is a polar sea 
which must be traversed and conquered. 
In the case of the South Pole it is a 
polar land which must be traversed and 
conquered. In the light of recent ex- 
plorations, the region about the South 
Pole offers facilities for the realization 
of the favorite popular ideas of attain- 
ing the Pole, namely, the colonization 
method, the method of relay stations 
short distances apart connected by wire, 
etc., ete. Plans of colonization, of re- 
lay stations, of telegraph connections, 
etc., etc., fall to the ground in the North 
Polar region because of the impossibil- 
ity of effecting anything of this kind 
upon the moving ice pack of the central 
polar sea. 

The attainment of the South Pole, 
granted sufficient funds, is only a mat- 
ter of time and patience. The work 
can be carried on in any season of the 
year, and each mile of advance can be 
permanently secured. 

The attainment of the North Pole 
means the ability to so refine and per- 
fect one’s equipment, supplies, and 
party as to be able to cover a distance 
of 500 miles each way without caches 
and without support from the country, 
and to cover this distance in a time limit 
of three or at most three and one-half 
months. 


FUNDS FOR THE EXPEDITION 


A partially erroneous statement has 
been generally disseminated which I am 
glad of the opportunity to correct here. 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


It is to the effect that the Peary Arctic 
Club will furnish the funds necessary to 
send out the proposed expedition. This 
is true only to a certain degree. 

The Peary Arctic Club, an unincorpo- 
rated association of my personal friends, 
with Morris K. Jesup, of New York 
city, at its head, furnished the funds for 
the financing of my last four years of 
Arctic work. After my return last fall 
there was a general feeling of disinclina- 
tion to drop the work uncompleted, 
when success had been so nearly won. 
This feeling took form in the proposi- 
tion of the majority of the club to con- 
tribute in varying sums toward the out- 
fitting of another expedition. Unfor- 
tunately, however, the total amount 
which these members of the club felt 
they could contribute, even with the 
accession of some new members, was not 
sufficient to properly fit out an expedi- 
tion. Had it been sufficient I should 
have gone north last summer, and 
should now be settled down in winter 
quarters somewhere on the Grinnell 
Land coast. 

The same status holds today. The 
total amount which the continuing mem- 
bers of the Peary Arctic Club feel that 
they can contribute to another expedi- 
tion is insufficient to properly outfit the 
expedition. Additional members, either 
individuals or associations, are necessary 
to complete the total amount. 

And it is to be said in this connec- 
tion that it is essential that the total 
amount should be assured without de- 
lay ; $150,000 to $200,000 between now 
and the rst of January will meet all re- 
quirements and give ample time to 
properly fit out the expedition. Six 
months from now it will be impossible 
to fit the expedition even with a half- 
million available, because of lack of 
time. 

Somewhere in this broad country I 
am satisfied that the money is waiting, 
ready and anxious to do this work as I, 
if only the connection can be estab- 


Tue Vatue or Arctic ExPLoRATION 


lished. One thing is to be clearly un- 
derstood, the government is not financ- 
ing the work. The funds must come 
from private sources. 

It may be said without egotism that a 
practical experience equaled by that of 
no other worker in Arctic regions ; an 
interest in the work at least equal to 
that of any other man; the utmost 
assistance of the Eskimos, never before 
available; the time and the opportunity, 
thanks to Assistant Secretary Darling 
and the President—all these are assured; 
the only thing lacking is the money. 


I assume that if it were demonstrated 
that the erection of a monument costing 
$150,000 would redound to the great 
credit of its builder or builders and of 
the city wherein it stood, not only now, 
but for generations to come, it would 
not be a very difficult proposition to 
secure that amount from some public- 
spirited citizen or citizens in many a 
prosperous city in this country. 

The Pole is a grander monument than 
any structure of stone or bronze, and a 
name inscribed upon it would be read 
and known by future generations when 
granite and bronze had crumbled to dust 
and rust. 

There is no way by which a man of 
large means may win for himself in these 
days a more enviable and lasting name 
than by assuming the role of patron of 
some large effort to increase our knowl- 
edge of the earth. 

The principal thing we remember of 
Ferdinand of Spain is that he sent Co- 
lumbus to his life work. 

Allthat most of us remember of Grin- 
nell, of New York, is that he sent Kane 
to his work. 

To the millionaire, whether he be 
young and just starting in life, or 
elderly and retired from business, it 
offers a broad and elevated field. 

In the words of old Martin Frobisher, 
it is ‘‘the one thing left of this world 
by which a notable mind may become 
famous and fortunate.’’ 


oe 


CONQUEST OF THE POLE SIMPLY A 
BUSINESS PROPOSITION 


The conquest of the Pole is today a 
business proposition, pure and simple ; 
and, like any business proposition, it 
can be presented in three sentences of 
four words each. Can it be done? 
What will it cost? Is it worth while? 

Can tt be done? ‘There is not a geog- 
rapher, a scientist, or an intelligent per- 
son conversant with Arctic matters who 
doubts that the Pole caz be reached, and 
that it w7// be reached in a few years. 

The requirements are simply those 
for any large project ; sufficient money ; 
proper equipment ; adequate time ; en- 
ergy, experience, and determination. 

What will it cost? The cost of various 
Arctic expeditions has ranged from a 
few thousand to a million dollars each. 

On my plan, and with my methods, 
an expedition which would in all prob- 
ability secure the Pole, can be fitted out 
for two years at acost of $150,000. The 
only expensive item in that outfit will 
be a powerful ship which shall push me 
to the northern shore of Grant Land. 

There are hundreds of men in this 
country today who could defray the 
expenses of an expedition and never 
feel it; thousands who could defray a 
tenth, hundreds of thousands who could 
defray a hundredth. 

We have spent and are spending hun- 
dreds of thousands of dollars for an idea 
or a principle. 

Take a single example, the interna- 
tional yacht races. A reliable New 
York paper stated recently that the 
cost of the last yacht race to the Amer- 
ican side alone was in the neighborhood 
of $900,000, and that it has cost us to 
defend the cup in the last five years 
some $2,200,000. 

For less than one-fourth of the former 
sum, less than one-tenth of the latter, 
we can secure the Pole. 

And how do the races compare? 

The races for the America’s cup have 
been in progress for tens of years, be- 


436 


tween two nations; the race for the Pole 
hundreds of years between practically 
all the civilized nations of the world. 

There have been numbers of cup- 
defender syndicates, and will be num- 
bers more. 

The syndicate that lifts the Pole will 
have no successor and can never be 
beaten. 

The winning of the yacht race is a 
matter of today; the winning of the 
Pole is for all time. 

ls it worth while? Certainly it is 
worth while. 

As a matter of the valuable additions 
to geography and science it is worth 
while. 

The head of the Smith Sound route 
is the one point from which can be 
reached and welded the links still lack- 
ing to make the Arctic exploration a 
finished job. 


THE MORAL PRESTIGE OF GAINING 
THE POLE WORTH TEN TIMES THE 
COST 


As a matter of prestige it is worth 
while. 

Abruzzi’s expedition, costing two 
hundred thousand dollars, was worth 
many times its cost to Italy in increased 
prestige. 

Abruzzi drove home to the civilized 
world the fiber of which Italians are 
made. 

Nansen’s expedition, fitted out by his 
King, his Parliament, and wealthy pri- 
vate citizens, impressed the world with 
the material which makes up the de- 
scendants of the Vikings. 

And should you some morning read 
in your paper that an American had 
placed the Stars and Stripes upon the 
Pole, each one of you would feel a thrill 
of pride and enthusiasm, and be glad 
that you are an American; and every 
true American at home and abroad 
would feel the same pride, and that in- 
crement of justifiable pride and enthu- 
siasm to each of millions of citizens 


Tue Nationa GeocraPHic MacGaZIneE 


would be worth ten times the cost in 
dollars and cents. 

Asa matter of patriotism based upon 
the obligations of our manifest destiny, 
it is worth while. 

The North American world segment 
is our home, our birthright, our destiny. 
The boundaries of that segment are the 
Atlantic and the Pacific, the Isthmus 
and the Pole. We are fully able, I 
think, to take care of the Atlantic and 
the Pacific. Weare negotiating for the 
Isthmus. It would be a shame for 
others to find and mark the Pole for us. 

Believe me, the winning of the North 
Pole will be one of the great mile-stones 
of history, like the discovery of the New 
World by Columbus and the conquest 
of the Old by Alexander ; and the man, 
or the association, or the community, 
or the nation that makes its discovery 
possible will write its name to be read 
and known when, perhaps, the very civ- 
ilization of today is forgotten. 

Let us attainit, then. It is our priv- 
ilege and our duty. Let us capture the 
prize and win the race which the nations 
of the civilized world have been strug- 
gling for for nearly four centuries, the 
prize which is the last great geographi- 
cal prize the earth has to offer ; the race 
which is far greater than the interna- 
tional yacht races. ‘Then let us take a 
hand with England, Germany, Sweden, 
Scotland, and the others for the con- 
quest of the South Pole. As Assistant 
Secretary Darling well says, the attain- 
ment of the Poles is all that remains to 
complete man’s domination of the earth. 

Six years ago we were sleeping con- 
tent within our borders, drowsy of our 
strength and possibilities. Since then 
we have embraced the earth, and now 
right hand clasps left in the far East in 
a grasp never to be loosened. What a 
splendid feat for this great and wealthy 
country if, having girdled the earth, we 
might reach north and south and plant 
““Old Glory’’ on each Pole. How the 
imagination stirs at the thought ! 


SURVEYING HAE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


By GEORGE R. PuTNAM, 


ASSISTANT, UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, IN CHARGE OF 
WorK IN THE PHILIPPINES 


HE work of the Coast and Geo- 

| detic Survey in the Philippine 
Islands is at present conducted 

under a joint arrangement between the 
national and insular governments, 
whereby each defrays certain classes of 
expenditures. It is under the general 
supervision of the Superintendent at 
Washington, but the local administra- 
tion is conducted mainly through a sub- 
office established at Manila. In all re- 


lations with the Philippine government 
this office acts as a bureau reporting to 
the Philippine department of commerce 
and police, in accordance with the act 


of the Philippine Commission passed 
September 6, Igor. 

An officer of this survey visited the 
islands during the summer of 1900 to 
make a preliminary investigation of the 
need of and conditions for the carrying 
on the work of the organization. The 
first survey parties arrived in Manila 
in December, 1900, and the present 
office quarters in the Intendencia build- 
ing were assigned and field parties com- 
menced work in January, 1901. At 
that time active military operations were 
in progress throughout the islands and 
Manila was under martiallaw. Noone 


Surveying Party Crossing a River on an Improvised Raft 


NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


Landing from an Outrigger through the Surf 


was allowed on the streets of the city 
after ro o’clock at night without au- 
thority, so that it was necessary for the 
longitude observer to be provided with 
a pass. Fora while the field work was 
confined to the vicinity of garrisoned 
posts, but after a few months the gen- 
eral conditions in the islands greatly 
improved and survey operations have 
been extended as needed. No serious 
difficulty has been encountered because 


of the hostility on the part of the 
natives, although in instances parties 
have been in towns that were ‘“‘ shot 
up.’’ On several occasions the survey- 
ing work, and especially the triangula- 
tion signals, have aroused the suspicions 
of over-zealous local officials. In one 
instance an observer climbing a hill to 
occupy a triangulation station met the 
municipal police of the neighboring 
town coming down the hill carrying the 


SURVEYING THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


triangulation signal with its wide, out- 
spreading legs still on it; they were 
industriously cutting a wide path 
through the thicket so as to be able to 
produce this suspicious object intact, 
evidently believing it a beacon of the 
insurrectos. They were persuaded to 
carry it up the hill again. 

The development of the field work 
has necessarily been controlled by vari- 
ous conditions, and it has been extended 
along the lines which appeared most 
feasible with the means available and 
most likely to yield re- 
sults of immediate use- 
fulness. 

The wide extension by 
the Signal Corps of the 
telegraph system for mil- 
itary purposes suggested 
the determination of base 
positions, including tele- 
graphic longitudes and 
zenith telescope latitudes. 
It was fortunate that this 
work was carried out 
promptly, as with the 
passing of military neces- 
sity many lines have been 
abandoned. Thirty-six 
latitudes and thirty-six 
differences of longitude 
have been determined, 
the points being fairly 
well distributed over the 
archipelago from the 
north coast of Luzon to Zamboanga. 
These stations have all been marked 
and described for future reference. At 
most stations a meridian has been laid 
out or an azimuth measured, and mag- 
netic observations have generally been 
made. 

The surveying steamer Pathfinder, 
under command of J. J. Gilbert, assist- 
ant, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
arrived at Manila from Alaska in No- 
vember, 1gor1, and has since been con- 
tinuously at work in the islands, except 
during intervals when docking or repair 
work on the vessel has been required. 


aro 9} 


Harbor surveys at Cebu, Ormoc, and 
Romblon have been made, and during 
the past year this vessel has completed 
important surveys of San Bernardino 
Strait and Albay Gulf, and of San 
Pedro Bay and the south coast of Samar, 
as well as a thorough examination of 
the much-used passage southwest of 
Leyte, where a danger had been re- 
ported. The Pathfinder is a well- 
equipped, modern survey ship, and 
carries two steam launches. 

A small wooden steamer was pur- 


U.S. Coast and Geodetic Steamer Pathfinder 


chased in Manila and adapted to survey 
work. This vessel, the Research, has 
made a number of harbor surveys on 
the west and southeast coasts of Luzon 
and on Mindoro and Culion islands, and 
is at present working on the coast of 
Negros. 

Chartered launches have been em- 
ployed in some cases for hydrographic 
work, and the survey of Lingayen 
Gulf by this means has recently been 
completed. Harbor surveys have been 
made at a number of other places, using 
various means. : 

The abrupt coral reefs along many of 


4.4.0 


the coasts of the archipelago materially 
increase the difficulty of carrying on 
hydrographic work. 

In connection with the hydrography, 
tidal observations have been made at 31 
places. At Manila an automatic tide- 
gauge has been maintained for more 
than two years. The tide staffs are re- 
ferred to bench-marks. The tide rec- 
ords are used in reducing the soundings 
and in predicting the tides, to be in- 
cluded in the annual Tide Tables pub- 
lished in Washington. 

A continuous triangulation has been 
carried along the northwest coast of 


Tue Narionat GeocraPpHic MaGAZINE 


extend to the southward among the 
islands. 

Topographic surveys with the plane- 
table have been carried out in connec- 
tion with nearly all the other work, 
usually executed simultaneously with 
the triangulation, but controlled by the 
latter. A scale of =i sy has generally 
been used for harbor work and spto5 
for general coast work, though these 
have been varied as conditions required. 
The topography has been confined to 
the shore line and adjacent towns and 
highways, with the location of eleva- 
tions visible from the coast. In the 


Triangulation Party Starting Out from Manila 


Luzon from Lingayen Gulf to Cape 
Bojeador, and this is now being ex- 
tended eastward along the north coast. 
This triangulation is for the control of 
the coast line, and extends from the 
shore to the first line of hills. It is 
joined to the various astronomical sta- 
tions and is sufficiently controlled by 
base lines and observed azimuths. 
Nearly all the harbor and other survey 
work is based on triangulation, and is 
generally connected with one of the as- 
tronomical stations, and all the points 
are marked and described. A triangu- 
lation has been carried to the entrance 
of Manila Bay, which it is proposed to 


work along the northwest coast of Luzon 
native ponies were used by the observ- 
ers, and bull carts for the transportation 
of instruments. The work progressed 
satisfactorily under the conditions there 
found, which were more favorable than 
in many other districts. The numer- 
ous substantial church edifices with 
which the country is dotted furnish the 
best of artificial landmarks and are a 
decided assistance in all parts of the 
survey work. In some localities few 
additional signals are necessary for hy- 
drographic or other work. 

In the office of the Survey in Manila 
detailed plans for the field parties are 


Murr GLAciER 


arranged, the distance from Washing- 
ton rendering this necessary. The rec- 
ords and survey sheets are sent to this 
office, and preliminary charts are pre- 
pared and published by lithography in 
Manila. 

In this office there have also been 
compiled and published a series of seven 
pamphlets of Sailing Directions for the 
Coasts of the Philippine Islands, and 
from time to time there are published 
Notices to Mariners, giving new infor- 
mation of immediate importance to nav- 
igation, as dangers discovered, changes 
in aids to navigation, and other correc- 
tions to charts. 

The computations are revised and car- 
ried as far as may be needed for imme- 
diate use, the soundings are plotted or 
examined, and the drawings are reduced 
to the scale required for publication. 
Besides the American experts in charge 
of each part of the work, ten Filipino 
draftsmen and one Filipino computer 
are employed. The almost entire lack 
of technical education in the Philippines 
has been a barrier to testing the ability 
of the natives in the survey work in the 
field. 

To furnish a knowledge of the coasts 


4.4.1 


and adjacent waters that will be satis- 
factory to an enlightened nation will 
require a large amount of coast-survey 
work in the Philippine Islands. While 
considerable information exists, a care- 
ful examination of it proves that for 
only limited areas does it approximate 
completeness. Many parts of the coast 
have been only roughly sketched. A 
glance at the map of the islands shows 
that the natural highways of this region 
are on the water, so that a large part of 
the commerce of the islands will always 
be carried by water. A few geograph- 
ical facts will emphasize these condi- 
tions. ‘The islands have a general coast 
line of about 11,444 statute miles, or 
double that of the main part of the 
United States, while the total area is 
115,026 square miles, or less than that 
of New Mexico. There is a mile of 
coast line to every 10 miles of area, 
while in the United States the propor- 
tion is 1 to555. There are nearly 1,700 
islands having names and it is possible 
to count 3,000 islands and islets on the 
charts. Even the larger land masses 
are so elongated in figure that no point 
in any island is more than 60 miles dis- 
tant from some part of the coast. 


MUIR GLACIER 


OR four years it has not been pos- 

i sible for the excursion steamers 
visiting Glacier Bay to closely 
approach the Muir Glacier. As that 
glacier has been the Mecca of many of 
the Alaska tourists, the failure to see the 
glacier at close quarters has been a 
grievous disappointment. During the 
season of 1899 the conditions were un- 
changed, and the boats made their en- 
trance into Muir Inlet and landed their 
passengers as usual, but with the sea- 
son of 1900 and the following seasons 
they were able to get no nearer than 
from five to ten miles below the usual 


landing. From that distance it could 
be seen that great changes had occurred 
in the appearance of the front of the 
glacier, and that the ice had receded to 
a considerable extent. 

Desiring to know the extent of the 
changes, on May 5, 1903, Mr Case, a 
photographer, of Skagway, Alaska, and 
myself left Skagway for Glacier Bay 
in an open boat. We followed in the 
bay, inall probability, close on the track 
of Professor Muir and Reverend Young 
when on their exploration trip in 1879. 
Going through the passages between 
the Beardslee Islands and keeping near 


442 


Tue Nationa, GrocrarpHic MAGAZINE 


A. Muir Glacier in May, 1903 


A and B give a panoramic view of the frontal cliff of the division of the glacier passing east of the 
nunatak. Beyond the nunatak at the left appears a part of the main or western division 


the east shore, we entered Muir Inlet, 
passed back of the small island, and 
reached the moraine of the glacier. At 
this point the ice completely blocked 
further progress, filling the inlet from 
shore to shore in a solid mass of bergs, 
largeandsmall. Landing here, we went 
up to where a view could be had of the 
inlet and glacier. From this point the 
ice in the inlet looked as though so 
closely packed that, from the island on 
the eastern shore across to the western 
shore and up to the front of the glacier, 
one might cross the inlet on the ice 
at almost any point. At scarcely any 
place could any water be seen, and to 
one not knowing that water extended 
underneath the ice, it would have been 


hard to believe it possible. It had the 
appearance of a great ice-jam in a river, 
except that the larger bergs were lifted 
above the mass higher than any jam 
could raise them. ‘The space of clear 
water which formerly extended in front 
of the ice, forming one of its greatest 
contrasts, was entirely filled. 

The glacier had receded until the 
point of the island in the center of the 
glacier, shown as being about three 
miles from the ice-front on the map of 
the glacier by Professor Reid, in the 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, 
February, 1892, was clear of ice ex- 
cept such as lay on the water in front 
of it. The main branch breaks from 
there to the mountain at the west, and 


Muir GLacieR 


44.3 


B. Muir Glacier in May, 1903 


the western tributary is entirely sepa- 
rated from it. On the other side of the 
island, or nunatak, the break of the 
glacier front extends toward the moun- 
tain above the Dirt Glacier ‘in two hol- 
lowing curves, leaving a point in the 
middle extending into the inlet as 
though resting on a sand-spit or other 
support. From there it turns west to- 
ward the Dirt Glacier and presents an 
ice-wall of perhaps 1oo feet in height 
or more, nearly to the place the Dirt 
Glacier enters the inlet. This part of 
the glacier presents a different front 
from the main branch. ‘The top of the 
ice is nearly level, and as it approaches 
the water it cracks in immense crevasses 
at varying distances back, and cubical 
blocks break from it, making much 


larger bergs than were formerly thrown 
off by the Muir. Bergs that appeared 
to us to be fully 75 feet out of the 
water were seen ro miles down Glacier 
Bay. 

The Dirt Glacier pushes its black 
front out into the inlet from the south- 
east, forming a separate glacier. 

This description will enable any one 
familiar with Professor Reid’s map, or 
any one who has visited the glacier, to 
understand the marked changes which 
have occurred. 

Judging from the appearance, it is not 
improbable that the end of the career of 
the Muir as a tidewater glacier is near 
at hand. 

Many attribute the sudden changes 
to the earthquakes which occurred in 


44.4 


September, 1899. At that time the part 
of Alaska in which the Muir Glacier is 
situated was visited by several severe 
shocks of earthquake. Previous to that 
the steamers had experienced no great 
difficulty in landing their passengers 
within a short distance of the front of 
the glacier, but during no season since 
have they been able to get nearer than 
five to ten miles, owing to the immense 
quantities of floating ice. Instead of 
receding a mile in seven years, as has 


Tue Nationa, GEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


been estimated heretofore, it has drawn 
back about two and one-half miles 
since 1899 ; consequently, to assign the 
changes to that cause is not at all un- 
reasonable. 

I append a sketch, based on Professor 
Reid’s map heretofore referred to, show- 
ing changes, and also photographs by 
Mr Case and myself, showing some of 
the existing conditions. 

Cc. lL. ANDREWS. 
Skagway, Alaska. 


ee ee 


yee 


AAW 
Sy) 


» 
{rw 


eset 
N 


: 


Con ey T WRIGHT 


NOTE BY G. K. GILBERT 


HE Muir Glacier is the 

best known and also one 
of the most interesting of Amer- 
ican glaciers. It is not a nar- 
row river of ice of the ordi- 
nary alpine type, but rather a 
broad lake of ice fed by trib- 
utary streams from many direc- 
tions, and discharging through 
an outlet valley to Glacier Bay. 
The bottom of this valley of 
discharge is below sea-level, so 
that whatever position in it the 
glacier front occupies the ice 
is washed by. the water of the 
ocean. The part of the valley 
not occupied by the glacier is 
known as Muir Inlet, and is 
a branch of Glacier Bay. In 
1792, when this part of the 
coast was mapped by the En- 
glish navigator, Vancouver, 
nearly the whole of Glacier 
Bay was filled with ice, the 
Muir Glacier being tributary 
to a broader stream. This 


\\ 


LZ 


2, 
LE 


erox (10 tw 


Scale ofmiles 
qo 2 3 4 5 


——— er ro? 


Sketch Map of Muir Inlet and Front of Muir 
Glacier, Showing Positions of the Ice Front 


in 1890 and in May, 1903 


The main features are taken from the map published by 
H. F. Reid in volume tv of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 
The ice front in 1903 and the data as to the 
condition of the inlet in that year are by C. L,. Andrews. 


MAGAZINE. 


broader stream ended in an ice 
cliff at a point more than 20 
miles farther seaward than the 
present front of Muir Glacier. 
In 1879 the region was visited 
by John Muir, who explored 
Glacier Bay and its various in- 
lets. He found the front of 
Muir Glacier well within Muir 


THe Grare-GrowInc INDusTRY 


Inlet, the retreat since the time of Van- 
couver having been more than 15 miles. 
In 1886 Rev. G. F. Wright madea study 
of the glacier, and it was surveyed and 
more elaborately studied by Prof. H. F. 
Reidin 1890 and 1892. In 1899 it was 
visited by the Harriman Expedition, and 
changes in the outline of the front were 
recorded in a sketch map by Mr Henry 
Gannett. Each successive observation 
up to 1890 showed the retreat of the ice 
front. Between 1890 and 1892 there 
was a slight advance, and there was a 
moderate amount of retreat before 1899. 
The history of the locality since 1899, 
as set forth in Mr Andrews’s letter, in- 
dicates that some very important change 
was made by the earthquake which oc- 
curred a few months after the visit of 
the Harriman Expedition. As the 
amount of ice thrown into the inlet was 
so great that approach by water is not 
yet possible, it is probable that the 
greater part, or perhaps the whole, of 
the falling away of the glacier front took 
place suddenly and as a consequence of 
the earthquake. Professor Reid’s map 
shows two nunataks, or islands of rock, 
projecting above the glaciera few miles 


445 


back from the front. The summits of 
these nunataks were used by him as to- 
pographic stations, and they were after- 
ward occupied for the same purpose by 
Mr Gannett. I also, as a member of 
the Harriman Expedition, visited them 
in 1899, and noted that the portion of 
the glacier lying between them and the 
ice front was at that time practically 
stagnant. The portion between them 
and the east wall of the basin seemed 
also to be nearly motionless, but there 
was evidence of a strong current west of 
the nunataks. That which has since 
broken away includes portions of both 
the inactive and the active divisions of 
the glacier, and the maps and photo- 
graphs suggest that the ice in the vicinity 
of the nunataks has suffered loss in 
depth as well as area. Where Reid 
mapped two small nunataks, Gannett 
found two of larger area, and Andrews 
indicates a single one, including the 
positions of both those observed by Reid. 
The retreat of the ice front has extended 
practically to the face of the confluent 
nunatak, though a remnant of ice ap- 
pears to cling to the rock, forming a 
terrace about its seaward slope. 


PE GRA h-GROWING INDUSTRY IN DHE 
UNG DS ay Adiens 


HE cultivation of grapes for the 
market, for raisins, and to make 

wine has become an important 
business of the United States during re- 
cent years. Two hundred million dollars 
of capital are invested in this and depend- 
ent industries. California supplies the 
people of the country with practically 
all the raisins that they eat, 100,000,000 
pounds, and the same state, with New 
York and Ohio, produces annually 24,- 
000,000 gallons of wine. ‘The annual 
grape crop, before any of the grapes 
are changed to wine or raisins, reaches 


$15,000,000 in value and nearly 750,000 
tons in weight. 

The early settlers of the Atlantic coast 
found wild vines everywhere, but their 
attempts to start vineyards in the East 
failed miserably, as they tried to grow 
varietiesimported from Europe. It was 
not until they began to experiment with 
some of the wild varieties growing so 
luxuriantly on the coast that they had 
any success. 

About 1824 Mr John Adlum, of 
Georgetown, D. C., obtained the well- 
known Catawba grape by improving a 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


446 


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4.48 


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450 


Tue Nartrionat GeocraPHic MaGaAZINE 


From George C. Husmann, U. S. Department of Agriculture 


Packing Raisins in Layers in California 


wild American grape. He was exceed- 
ingly elated with his discovery, and in 
a letter toa friend says that “‘in bring- 
ing this grape into public notice I have 
rendered my country a greater service 
than I would have done had I paid the 
national debt.’’ Though the national 
debt was then $90,000,000, Mr Adlum 
probably did not exaggerate the value 
of his discovery: 

Twenty years later, in 1844, Mr 
Ephraim Wales Bull, of Concord, Mass., 
obtained the famous Concord grape from 
the seed of another wild variety. The 
Concord has since become the most 
widely known, most generally planted, 
and for all purposes the best American 
grape yet introduced. Nine-tenthsof the 
great cropof 85,000 tons of grapes from 
the Chautauqua grape belt on Lake Erie, 
in 1900, were Concords. ‘The first Con- 
cord vine, from which stock the millions 
of vines of this variety have come, still 
lives in the garden of Mr Bull’s cottage. 


In 1830 there were 88 varieties of 
American vines known. - Today there 
are at least 1,000. 

In California the Mission fathers suc- 
ceeded at an early date in growing a 
European grape for theirownuse. They 
had but one variety, which is still largely 
grown, and is known as the Mission. 
The Mission vine planted at Montecito, 
Cal., in 1795, was exhibited at the 
Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. 
Some of the choicest European varieties 
have since been introduced and have 
thriven in their new home. 

Mr George C. Husmann, of the De- 
partment of Agriculture, has recently 
published an exceedingly valuable paper 
on ‘‘Grape, Raisin and Wine Produc- 
tion in the United States,’’ from which 
these facts are derived.* 

In the United States there are two 
distinct grape-producing sections—one 

* Year Book of the Department of Agricul- 
ture, 1902, pp. 407-420. 


Tue Grare-Growinc INDUSTRY 


east of the Rocky Mountains, where 
the American varieties are largely and 
profitably grown; the other in Califor- 
nia, where the foreign or Vinifera vari- 
eties have found a congenial home. 

To the late Senator Leland Stanford, 
founder of the Leland Stanford Junior 
University, belongs the distinction of 
having had the largest vineyard in the 
world, comprising nearly 5,000 acres 
and being over 7 miles long. The win- 
eries on the place cover more than 6 
acres of roof surface, and during the 
years Mr Husmann had charge of them 
from 2% million to 3 million gallons of 
Wine were made annually, from 400 to 
850 tons of grapes being crushed daily. 
Throughout California there are a num- 
ber of vineyards of 500 acres each. 

At Asti the Italian-Swiss colony has 
1,700 acres in bearing vineyards. On 
the place are extensive wineries, with 
the largest wine vat of the world, hold- 
ing 500,000 gallons. Near Cucamonga 
the Italian Vineyard Company has, dur- 
ing the last three years, planted nearly 
2,000 acres inone field. The Riverside 
Vineyard Company during the same 
time planted 2,500 acres in one vine- 
yard. 

The amount of wine made in the 
United States is, however, very small 
compared to that produced in the coun- 
tries of Europe. Even Turkey, whose 
Mohammedan population drink little 
wine, produces nearly twice as much 
wine as the United States. 

In 1901 France produced of wines 
1, 523,233,200 gallons; Italy, 1,013,- 
760,000 ; Spain, 520,080,000 ; Portugal, 


451 


155,760,000; Austria, 116,160,000 ; 
Roumania, 87,120,000 ; Chile, 85,120,- 
000; Russia, 76,560,000; Bulgaria, 


73,920,000 ; Germany, 60,720,000 ; Ar- 
gentina, 55,440,000; Turkey, 50,160,- 
000; Greece, 32,300,000; Switzerland, 
31,680,000 ; Uiited States, 29,500,000, 
and Servia, 23,760,000 gallons. ‘The 
industry in the United States is as yet 
inits infancy. A beginning has just 
been made in a commercial and business- 
like manner to improve methods and 
expand markets. California has pro- 
duced and sold annually the last ten 
years an average of 20 million gallons 
of wine, 2 million gallons of brandy, 
and 80 million pounds of raisins. Her 
wines and brandies have taken high 
honors at all important expositions, in- 
cluding that at Paris in 1900, and they 
are rapidly finding their way into all the 
principal markets of the world. 

So far the raisin industry of this coun- 
try has only supplied the small home 
demand of 100 million pounds, whereas 
the present population, were it to con- 
sume as much per capita as some other 
countries, say Great Britain, would now 
use 400 million pounds annually, not to 
say anything of extending markets and 
exporting to other countries. 

When it is considered that France in 
1go1 produced 1,523,233,200 gallons of 
wine, while this country produced 
29,500,000 gallons, and that the Golden 
State alone has a grape and wine pro- 
ducing area almost equal to the whole 
of France, some idea can be formed of 
the great possibilities of this important 
industry. 


PRECIOUS STONES 


HE United States can supply all 
the wants of its people for coal, 
iron,'copper, petroleum, and all 


the useful minerals ; gold and silver also 
are found in generous quantities ; but of 


precious stones, the diamond, the ruby, 
the emerald, the topaz, etc., it has prac- 
tically none, except what it has bought 
abroad. In 1902 we paid $25,000,000 
to foreign countries for precious stones 


452 


that we imported, while during that 
year precious stones of the value of only 
$338,000 were found within our borders. 
These were principally sapphires from 
Montana, turquoises from New Mexico, 
Arizona, Nevada, and California, and 
tourmalines and chrysoprases from Cal- 
ifornia. 

The United States Geological Survey 
has just published a report by Mr George 
F. Kunz on ‘‘ The Production of Pre- 
cious Stones in 1902,’’** which contains 
much interesting information as to the 
origin of the different stones. 

Nearly all the diamonds come from 
the Kimberley mines. 

The South African mines have re- 
covered from the set-back of the Boer 
war, and apparently have an inex- 
haustible supply of diamonds. In the 
various mines a total of over 40,000,000 
loads of blue or diamantiferous ground 
is blocked out, meaning probably more 
than 10,000,000 carats of diamonds. 
The largest pile of diamonds ever 
brought together was collected at the 
De Beers mine in South Africa in July, 
1900. The directors wanted to know 
the quantity of diamonds necessary to 
fill a certain measure. Diamonds of all 
kinds were put in just as mined, and it 
was thus ascertained that a cubic meter 
of diamonds weighs 11,976,000 carats 
and has an approximate value of about 
$76,000,000. Up to the present time 
the Kimberley mines have produced 
more than $500,000,000 worth of uncut 
diamonds. 

The number of diamonds from Brazil 
has fallen considerably during the last 
several years, because of the crude and 
unsystematic methods of hunting for 
them. Some 5,000 people are engaged 
in diamond mining there, but their tools 


*'The Production of Precious Stones in 1902. 
By George F. Kunz. Extract from mineral 
resources of the United States, calendar year 
1902: David T. Day, Chief of Division of 
Mining and Mineral Resources. Washington : 
Government Printing Office. 1903. 


Tue Natrrionat GrocraPpHic MaGAZINE 


are the commonest—a hoe, a crowbar, 
an iron hook on the end of a pole, or a 
hammer and two basins for washing 
the gravel. The accompanying illustra- 
tions show two remarkable carbons from 
Brazil found on one claim—the first in 
1894 and the second intgo1. ‘The car- 
bons are split into many pieces and used 
for diamond drills. The present output 
of 2,500 carats of carbons a month can- 
not supply the demand for them for 
mining and drilling machinery. The 
price per carat demanded by the min- 
ers in the field has jumped to $11 and 
$11.20 for carbons, which is more than 
is paid for average uncut diamonds. 

A new diamond field is being ex- 
ploited in southwestern Borneo, where 
diamonds have long been known to exist. 
In the region of the Landak River, near 
the mouth of the Soran River, a piece of 
so-called serpentine has been obtained 
which incloses a diamond apparently in 
itstrue matrix. The Rajahsof Panem- 
bohan and Pongerans possess an im- 
mense belt studded with diamonds, said 
to be from this district, one stone weigh- 
ing 67 carats. It is a peculiar belief of 
the natives that the gold and diamonds in 
the earth area sort of bank, and should 
be worked only when they themselves 
need money, since they believe that gold 
and diamonds are always there when 
they desire them. The great Borneo 
diamond of Mattam, said to weigh 367 
carats, is believed to be from this same 
region. 

India, so long renowned in history 
and tradition as the source of gems, 
produced in r902 no diamonds and no 
precious stones, with the exception of 
considerable numbers of rubies mined 
in Upper Burma. The leading gem 
dealers of Paris and Amsterdam have 
agents at Mandalay who buy the rubies 
directly from the Shans. The finest 
rubies go io Paris. 

In examining rubies the Shans never 
use artificial light, holding that full 
sunlight alone can bring out perfectly 


Precious STONES 45: 


From George F. Kunz, U. S. Geological Survey 


The Largest Piece of Carbon Ever Found. Actual Size 


The carbon was found in Brazil in 1894. It weighed 3,078 carats or 20.3 troy ounces. The 
finder sold it for $16,000 to a speculator, who resold it for $32,000, After it had been broken 
into pieces for use as a diamond drill its value was about $130,815. 


A Ih Tue Nationat Geocrapuic Macazine 


From George F. Kunz, U. S. Geological Survey 


Process of Breaking the Third Largest Piece of Carbon Ever Found. Weight, 
750% Carats; Value, $23,600. Found in Brazil, rgor 


r. Outer half of the piece, showing a break diagonally across it. 2. Reverse (inner) side of 1, 
showing three breaks, making five pieces of the half of the carbon 


Precious STONES 455 


From George F, Kunz, U. S$. Geological Survey 


The Carbon Shown on the Opposite Page as Finally Broken into Pieces for Drills 


I, 1a. Inner sides of upper part of the carbon shown as Fig. 2 in the preceding illustration. 
2. The entire piece of carbon broken into pieces weighing from three to four carats each, the 
sizes generally used for diamond drills. 


456 Tue Nationa, Geocrapuic Macazing 


From George F. Kunz, U. S. Geological Survey 


Diamond Sawing by a Process Recently Invented by an American 


The diamond is held firmly and very steadily under pressure against a rapidly revolving 
disk of sheet iron or ‘“‘phosphor’’ bronze. The wheels are much like those used in sawing 
thin sections for microscopic rock sections or for cutting jade, rock crystal, and other hard 
stones. Itis claimed that in thus dividing an octahedron at the center or girdle as little as 
2 per cent of the weight of the crystal is lost—a great saving of material. As evidencing the 
wonderfully keen responsive business acumen which has always characterized the ‘‘rough’’ 

' syndicate, the price of all rough diamonds that could be improved or advanced in value by such 
sawing was immediately advanced when the process became known. 


Precious STONES 


the color and brilliancy of the gems. 
Sales must therefore take place between 
the hours of 9 and 3, and the sky must 
be clear. 

The purchaser, placed near a window, 
has before him a large copper plate. 
The sellers come to him one by one, 
and each empties upon the plate his 
little bag of rubies. 

The bright copper plate has a curious 
use. The sunlight reflected from it 
through the stones brings out a color 
effect with true rubies different from 
that with red spinels and tourmalines, 
which are thus easily separated. 

The buyer and seller then go through 
avery peculiar method of bargaining 
by signs, or rather grips, in perfect 
silence. After agreeing on the fairness 
of the classifications, they join their 
right hands, covered with a handker- 
chief or a flap of a garment, and by 
grasps and pressures, mutually under- 
stood among all these dealers, they 
make, modify, and accept proposals. 
The hands are then brought out, and 
the prices are recorded. 

The larger single stones are valued 
according to color and shape for cutting, 
the very fine ones bringing high prices. 
A ruby of 36% carats from the Mogok 
mine some years ago brought 90,000 
rupees ($30,000) at Calcutta. 

Cutting is an important industry at 
Mandalay, and the Burmese workmen 
have remarkable skill, especially in 
avoiding lossin weight. European cut- 
ting they consider very wasteful, and 
at Mandalay a man would not be em- 
ployed who sacrificed more than one- 
fourth of a ruby, while at Antwerp a 
loss of two-thirds is not uncommon. 
The tools are extremely simple. The 
stone is first shaped with a small steel 
chisel and wooden mallet, as far as possi- 
ble, according toits cleavage. The facets 
are then ground and polished on a cop- 
per wheel with ruby dust, the stone 
being held with wax or lac on a curved 
piece of ox horn. A month or six 


425) J 


weeks may be occupied in cutting and 
polishing a ruby of one carat. 

The pale stones, cut rounded (cabo- 
chon) with a concave base, are much 
used for ornamental work, especially 
upon gold vessels. ‘The luster of the 
gold beneath appears to enrich and 
darken the ruby and give it the true 
pigeon’s-blood color. 

Agates, amethysts, rock crystal, and 
golden topazes are shipped in great 
quantities from Brazil. Almost all of 
them go to Idar and Oberstein, in Ger- 
many, where they are cut into orna- 
ments. Last year 200,000 pounds of 
agate and six tons of rock crystal were 
cut into seals, paperweights, and faceted 
stones. One wonderful geode yielded 
over 40,000 pounds of amethyst. 

A great quantity of sapphire of a very 
dark blue, almost black, color, with a 
greenish tint, and occasionally entirely 
green, was imported from Australia. 
The tourmaline, principally the red 
(tubellite) and also the aquamarine 
from Brazil, have been sought for, and 
considerable quantities of both have 
been sold at Idar. 

It is interesting to note the increasing 
variety of ornamental and semi-precious 
stones now being brought into use, 
and particularly the introduction of 
jade. 

This beautiful stone has from prehis- 
toric times been the especial favorite of 
uncivilized or semi-civilized peoples, 
and in China, Japan, and India it has 
yielded the choicest objects of oriental 
art. Atthe Paris Exposition of 1900 
a remarkable exhibit was made of Sibe- 
rian jade wrought by European artists, 
and now the Oceanic jade of New Zea- 
land, long prized and carved by the 
Maoris, is becoming immensely popular 
with the civilized world. 

Great bowlders of it have recently 
been discovered in New Zealand, in the 
river beds, from one of which two pan- 
els, translucent and of a rich pure green 
color, were cut, which were over one 


458 


yard long, two-thirds of a yard wide, 
and only one-eighth of an inch thick. 
Nearly all the jade of New Zealand was 
sent to Germany and there cut into 
stones for rings, scarf-pins, studs, and 
for ordinary jewelry purposes, such as 
those for which sard and agate have 
heretofore been used. 

The diamond syndicate, composed of 
the South African mine owners, manage 
the sale of their diamonds very shrewdly. 
A purchaser must buy not only the va- 
riety of diamond he wants, but also all 
the other varieties from the mines. 
The syndicate sells its diamonds in par- 
cels or series; each parcel is made up 
of the different varieties of diamonds 
in the proportion in which each dia- 


NOTES ON 


derived its name from the native 

word for butterfly. Explorers of 
the interior tell of swarms of butterflies 
which at times rise on the slopes of the 
mountains in dense clouds, darkening 
the sunshine. Others maintain that the 
name is from an Indian word meaning 
abounding in fish. 

The Republic of Panama is believed 
to have about 300,000 people, living in 
towns and hamlets. It extends east 
and west for about 450 miles, with an 
average breadth of 70 miles from sea to 
sea. Its area is about 31,500 square 
miles. ‘Thus the population of the state 
about equals that of Washington, D.C., 
while its area is a little greater than 
the area of South Carolina. ‘The com- 
merce of Panama amounts to $3,000,000 
per annum. ‘These figures are supplied 
by the Bureau of Statistics of the De- 
partment of Commerce and Labor, and 
are from reports of the United States 
consuls at Panama and Colon, which 
have just been received by the Bureau 
and are not yet published. 


[ is supposed by some that Panama 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 


mond is found. In this way the un- 
popular varieties are disposed of as 
quickly as the popular ones. 

The diamond-cutting industry in the 
United States has advanced very rapidly 
during recent years. American dia- 
mond-cutters would now be able to cut 
all the diamonds for this country if they 
could get enough rough diamonds. As 
it is, the rough diamonds sent over 
supply only one-half of the demand. 

The American cutters have invented 
a number of new mechanical labor- 
saving devices, which have given them a 
great advantage over the Kuropean cut- 
ters, where diamond cutting is done by 
the ancestral ‘‘rule of thumb’’ handed 
down from father to son. 


PANAMA AND COLOMBIA 


The principal ports are Panama, on 
the Pacific coast, and Colon, on the At- 
lantic side, and these ports are visited 
annually by more than one thousand 
vessels, which land over one million tons 
of merchandise and nearly one hundred 
thousand passengers, chiefly for transfer 
over the Panama Railway, 47 miles in 
length, connecting the Pacific port of 
Panama with the Atlantic port of Colon. 

Colon, sometimes called Aspinwall, 
has a population of about three thousand 
persons. It was named in honor of Co- 
lumbus, who discovered the bay in 1502. 
The city of Panama hasa population of 
about twenty-five thousand. It was 
founded in 15t9, burned in 1671, and 
rebuilt in 1673. During the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries Panama was 
one of the wealthiest of the Spanish 
towns in the New World, as all the 
plunder from the Pacific coast passed 
through the city. It ‘‘ had eight mon- 
asteries, a cathedral, and two churches, 
a fine hospital, 200 richly furnished 
houses, nearly 5,000 houses of humbler 
sort, a Genoese chamber of commerce, 


Notes oN PaNAMA AND CoLomBIA 459 


Photo by Robert ‘T. Hill 


An Uncompleted Section of the Panama Canal 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 


Canal Cutting Through Massive Basaltic Rock 


460 Tue Nationa GrocrapHic MaGaZInE 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 


Panama Bay. The Island of Toboga, Famous for its Delicious Pineapples 


Photo by;Robert T. Hill 


Washerwomen—Isthmus of Panama 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 
Panama. Interior of Ruins of Old Cathedral 


In the back of the picture will be seen a brick arch of about 30 feet span and less than 4 feet 
spring. The preservation of this arch testifies to the freedom of this region from serious earth- 
quake disturbances. 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 


Panama. ‘This Tower Alone Remains to Mark the Site of the Great City befor 
it was Sacked by Sir Henry Morgan 


462 


and 200 warehouses, and was, after three 
weeks of rapine and murder, burned 
February 24, 1671, by Morgan’s bucca- 
neers, who carried off 175 laden mules 
and more than 600 prisoners.’’** Colon 
is of much more recent date, having 
been founded in 1855. 

The population, which, as already in- 
dicated, amounts in number to about 
three hundred thousand, is composed of 
various elements—Spanish, Indian, Ne- 
gro, and a limited number of persons 
from the European countries and the 
United States, especially those engaged 
in commerce and transportation and the 
operation of the Panama Railway. Since 
the abolition of slavery in Jamaica a con- 
siderable number of blacks and mulat- 
toes have settled on the Isthmus as small 
dealers and farmers, and in some villages 
on the Atlantic side they are said to be 
in the majority, and as a result the En- 
glish language is much in use, especially 
onthe Atlantic side. Some of the native 
population have retained their customs, 
speech, and physical type, especially 
those in the western part of the prov- 
ince, and claim to be descendants of the 
natives found in that section by the 
Spaniards when they discovered and 
conquered the country. 

Of the commerce of Panama, the 
United States supplies a larger share 
than any other country. The importa- 
tions at the port of Colon during the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1903, as shown 
by the report of the United States consul, 
amounted to $952,684,o0f which $614,179 
was from the United States, $119,086 
from France, $118,322 from England, 
$76,386 from Germany. ‘The exports 
to the United States from Colon in 1903 
amounted to $173,370, of which $75,432 
was bananas, $54,960 cocoanuts, $12,472 
turtle shells, $9,400 ivory nuts, $6,460 
hides, and $5.924 coffee. 

From the port of Panama the exports 
to the United States in the fiscal year 
1903 amounted to $193,342, of which 


* Travels of Pedro de Cieza de Leon, Hakluyt 
Society, 1864. 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MaGaZINnNE 


$56,767 was hides, $49,974 India rubber, 
$27,805 cocobolo nuts, $16,598 ivory 
nuts, $13,372 deerskins, and $6,908 cof- 
fee. The consul at Panama states that 
the imported articles come mostly from 
England, Germany, France, Italy, and 
the United States, but gives no statistics 
of the imports. 

Panama is connected with San Fran- 
cisco by a weekly steamer schedule oper- 
ated by the Pacific Mail Steamship Com- 
pany, and with Valparaiso by a weekly 
steamer schedule operated by the Pacific 
Steam Navigation Company and South 
American Steamship Company. Two 
passenger and two freight trains leave 
Panama daily for Colon, and Colon daily 
for Panama. ‘The time for passenger 
trains over the 47 miles of railway is 
three hours. 

From Panama there is one cable line 
north to American ports and one to the 
south. The actual time consumed in 
communicating with the United States 
and receiving an answer is stated by the 
consul to be usually about four hours. 
There are also lines from Colon to the 
United States and Europe. 

The money of the country is silver, 
the rate of exchange having averaged 
during the past year about 150 per cent. 

The climate of the isthmus of Panama 
has proven most deadly in the past. 
Even the tough negroes imported from 
Jamaica have quickly succumbed to the 
marsh fevers and tropical diseases of 
the country. The excessive death rate 
has been principally due, however, to 
an utter disregard of sanitary laws. A 
sensible and efficient administration will 
be able to improve conditions and to 
make the lives of all on the Isthmus 
safer. 

Along the route of the canal the coun- 
try is accurately surveyed, but there are 
large sections beyond which are unex- 
plored. 


COLOMBIA 


Colombia has more than ten times the 
population of Panama. ‘The last census 


Notes oN PaNAMA AND CoLomMBIA 463 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 


Colon—Driveway of Christofer Colon, the Canal Suburb 


The ground is made from débris of the Canal dumped into the bay 


464 Tue Narionat GeocraPpHic MacaZziIne 


Photo by Robert I. Hill 


Colon. Residence of the Superintendent of the Panama Railway Company at 
the Entrance of Limon Bay : 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 


Panama Bay. The Island of Naos, Terminus of the Pacific Mail Line 


Norges on PaNaMa AND COoLoMBIA 


was taken 32 years ago; but an official 
estimate made in 1881 gave her about 
3,600,000, not including the people of 
Panama. Colombia has no army to 
speak of, noships, no money, only a few 
miles of railway, and hence no means of 
sending a good force against Panama. 

Bogota, the capital, is called the 
Athens of South America, and has a 
population of 125,000. The national 
university is located in the city and there 
is a valuable library of 50,000 volumes, 
an observatory, a picture gallery, and 
several learned institutions. 

An intending visitor to Bogota is 
landed at Barranquilla, at the mouth of 
the Magdalena River; thence he pro- 
ceeds by steamer up the river for 592% 
miles to Honda, then by rail 22 miles to 
La Dorada, then by mules 45 miles to 
Facatativa, and thence by rail 24 miles, 
when he finally reaches the Colombian 
capital. 

Colombia, exclusive of Panama, is as 
large as the two states of California and 
Texas combined. Three high moun- 
tain ranges cross the republic from north 
to south, making high table-lands be- 
tween, where the days the year round 
are scarcely hotter than those of a tem- 
perate zone. Onthe Bogota table-land 
the glass oscillates between 50° and 78° 
Fahr., while the annual rainfall rarely 
exceeds 45 inches. Inthe lowlands, of 
course, the tropical sun beats down with 
an intensity that makes those sections 
uninhabitable by the white man. 

The people are a mixture of races. 
At the time of the Spanish conquest 
the population of Colombia was esti- 
mated at eight million. Wholesale butch- 
eries and enslavement in the mines re- 
duced the number in a few generations 
to less than a million. Most of the na- 
tives were too helpless to resist, but 
““some retaliated and in the Antioquia 
district poisoned the salt springs so ef- 
fectually that they remain poisoned to 
this day.’’ ‘The present Colombian na- 
tionality is a fusion in varying propor- 
tions of the aborigines with the whites 


465 


from various parts of Spain, includinga 
considerable number of baptized Jews. 
This’ Hebrew element is quite notice- 
able, especially in the province of Antio- 
quia, which is’ the wealthiest and most 
prosperous of the departments of Co- 
lombia. There is also a considerable 
African element in the population. 

Colombia has great wealth lying un- 
touched on her plains and in her forests 
and mountains. Dr A. H. Keane de- 
scribes her resources in the following 
glowing terms : * 

“So varied and abundant are its nat- 
ural resources, both above and below 
ground, that, under a firm and enlight- 
ened administration, Colombia, despite 
the insalubrious climate of many dis- 
tricts, might soon become one of the 
most prosperous regions in the world. 
It supplies nearly all the platinum as 
well as the very finest emeralds brought 
to the European market, while gold- 
bearing reefs and washings occur almost 
everywhere, the total annual yield be- 
ing about £650,000 and the yield of 
gold and silver since the discovery nearly 
£150,000,000. In I89t as many as 
4,960 mines of all kinds were open, in- 
cluding 3,398, 794, and 571 of gold in 
the three departments of Antioquia, 
Tolima, and Cauca respectively, besides 
32 of emeralds, 14 of cinnabar, 7 of 
manganese, and several of platinum, 
silver, lead, mercury, iron, coal, and 
salt. Extensive coal-fields and reser- 
voirs of petroleum occur in several 
districts, so that few regions can com- 
pare with Colombia for the astonishing 
variety of its underground products. 
Scarcely less varied are those of its for- 
ests and cultivated lands, including 
coffee, cocoa, tobacco, sugar, vegetable 
ivory, rubber, dye-woods, plantains, 
wheat, and maize; but at present only 
a small part of the country is under 
tillage, and the development of its agri- 
cultural resources is greatly retarded 
by the lack of good communications.”’ 


* Central and South By A. H. 
Keane. Vol. I, p. 152. 


America, 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 
Houses of the Talamancan Indians 


The Talamancans are a tribe of uncivilized Indians living on the borders of Panama and Colombia. 
They are aborigines, and are practically as wild today as in the time of Columbus 


Photo by Robert T. Hill 


Typical Vegetation of the Isthmus of Panama. ‘Two Talamancans in the Foreground 


HEU Sao lLGNAW CORES 


HE Alaskan telegraph system 
has been completed by the U.S. 

[ Signal Corps. Itis now possible 
to send messages by wire to Valdes, Fort 
Michael, and to stations along the Yukon 
River. At present these messages must 
pass over Canadian lines to the inter- 
national boundary near Fort Egbert, 
whence they are carried by the U. S. 
military lines to their Alaskan desti- 
nation. A cable has been laid from 
Sitka to Juneau and up the Lynn Canal 
to Skagway, connecting by way of 
White Pass with the Canadian tele- 
graph line, and bringing these impor- 
tant points into instant communication 
with Washington and London. 

Few realize the difficulties that have 
been overcome in building this network 
of 1,740 miles of wire. Most of the 
land lines were put in during the best 
working season, November to Febru- 
ary. The mean temperature for these 
four months was two degrees below 
zero. Sometimes it was so cold that 
the mercury froze solid afterit had gone 
as low as 61 degrees below zero. Gen. 
A. W. Greely, U. S. A., in his last re- 
port as Chief Signal Officer, says of the 
work: 

“Ttis impossible to adequately set forth 
the tremendous difficulties under which 
Alaskan military telegraph lines have 
been constructed and maintained. In 
general, it is to be premised that not 20 
miles of constructed wagon road exists 
in the country traversed. Asarule, all 
material has been sledded into the in- 
terior in midwinter or carried by pack 
animals over the roughest imaginable 
trails. Conditions were so difficult that 
some coils of wire were carried 145 miles 
by pack. The magnitude of the work 
may be inferred by the statement that 
from Fort Egbert alone, between No- 
vember 20, 1902, and June 30, 1903, no 
less than 220 tons of supplies and ma- 
terial were sledded or packed into the 


interior, it being impossible to move a 
ton by wagon. 

‘The conStruction parties, consisting 
almost entirely of enlisted men of the 
Signal Corps and of the line of the Army, 
worked steadily the entire winter, al- 
though the conditions under which field 
work was done were of the most hazard- 
ous and appalling character. As an 
illustration may be mentioned the fact 
that from November 1 to the end of the 
winter, by official reports, 60 feet and 11 
inches of snow fell at Fort Liscum, ad- 
joining the Copper River Valley. 

“Tn the interior, while the snowfall 
was very much less, being only 4 feet 4 
inches at Egbert, yet continued and 
terrible cold made camp life and con- 
struction work almost insupportable. 
The mean temperature at Fort Egbert 
from November to February, inclusive, 
a period of four months, was 2° below 
zero. ‘There were prolonged periods of 
extreme low temperature, when the 
mercury remained frozen, the minimum 
of 61° below zero occurring in January. 
While the past winter is believed to 
have been the most severe in Alaska for 
many years, yet such was the resource- 
fulness and endurance of the American 
soldier that the work of construction in 
the valley of the Tanana was carried 
on the entire winter without loss of life 
and with only one serious case of freez- 
ing. 

‘““The cold and snow of the winter 
were, strangely enough, more favorable 
to completing the system than were the 
morasses and firesofsummer. ‘The final 
completion of the telegraph system was 
made just as an extensive forest fire de- 
vastated the upper valley of the Tanana, 
burning thousands of square miles of 
valuable timber and destroying more 
than 100 miles of telegraph line. ‘The 
damage was the more serious in that the 
roo miles of line destroyed were burnt 
out not as a whole section, but at vari- 


468 


ous points along the distance of 250 
miles over which the fire extended.”’ 
The cable to connect Sitka and Seat- 
tle has been made and is now at San 
Francisco. It will be laid in the early 
spring of 1904. ‘The cable was author- 
ized by Congress March 3, 1903. Since 
that date the entire cable, 1,300 miles 
long, has been manufactured near New 
York, transported around Cape Horn, 
and delivered in perfect condition at 
San Francisco after its voyage of 16,000 
miles; the complicated machinery to 
handle the cable and the delicate instru- 
ments necessary to operate it have been 
planned by the Signal Corps, made to 
order in Great Britain, and delivered in 
San Francisco, and the route from Se- 
attle to Sitka has been surveyed by 


GEOGRAPHIC 


The Island of Formosa. Past and Pres- 
ent. History, People, Resources, and 
Commercial Prospects; Tea, Cam- 
phor, Sugar, Gold, Coal, Sulphur, 
Economical Plants, and Other Pro- 
ductions. By James W. Davidson, 
F. R. G. S., consul of the United 
States for Formosa. With two new 
maps, frontispiece in color, one hun- 
dred and sixty-eight illustrations 
from photographs, and colored repro- 
ductions of two Chinese posters. Im- 
perial 8vo. Pp. 720. New York: 
The Macmillan Company. 1903. 

Mr Davidson, U. S. Consul to For- 
mosa since 1895, has written a very 
comprehensive description of Formosa, 
past and present. His narrative his- 
tory of the islanders, of their struggles 
against the Chinese, the Tartars, the 
Dutch, and the pirates, and of their 
frequent rebellions and continual bat- 
tling against the aborigines in the moun- 
tains, makes interesting reading. His 
chapters on the various industries of 
Formosa are specially valuable. The 


Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


Capt. J. F. Pratt, of the Coast and Geo- 
detic Survey steamer Paterson, through 
the courtesy of Supt. Otto H. Tittmann, 
of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. This 
is a remarkable record of achievement 
in seven months, March to September, 
inclusive. 

The gradual transfer of the military 
telegraph and cable lines in the Philip- 
pines to the insular government was 
begun during the year. It is estimated 
that if a fee of two cents a word had 
been charged for all official messages 
the receipts of the lines would have 
been $1,500,000. ‘The cost of construc- 
tion and maintenance was less than 
$500,000, so that there was a net saving 
to the government of over one million 
dollars. ; 


LITERATURE 


island is extraordinarily fertile; it has 
vast camphor forests, an unlimited sup- 
ply of coal, gold mines, salt, petroleum, 
sulphur, and other deposits, and many 
plants of economic value—indigo, fiber, 
and paper plants, and many others. 
Perhaps the most notable chapter of the 
volume is that describing his visit to 
Botel Tobago Island. 


Botel Tobago (Kotosho) Island is a 
dependency of Formosa, and some 35 
miles from the south Formosan coast. 
The island is only some 30 miles in 
circumference, and consists of a single 
long hill, on the shores of which the 
savages live. To the ethnologist, the 
inhabitants of this little land are, per- 
haps, the most interesting of all the sav- 
ages in Japan’s new colony, and doubt- 
less there are few tribes in the whole 
East who live in such a primitive man- 
ner and who have had so little communi- 
cation with the outside world as the 
Botel Tobago savages. An occasional 
Chinese junk stops off the island to ex- 
change wares, but otherwise the island 


GEOGRAPHIC 


had never been visited until a Japanese 
commission, accompanied by Mr David- 
son, landed and explored it soon after 
the Chinese-Japanese war. 

Mr Davidson’s account of the island 
is the first that has been published. 
The following extracts are reprinted 
here with his permission. The photo- 
graphs have not been previously pub- 
lished. 

The inhabitants of Botel Tobago,some 
I,200 or 1,300 in all, occupy eight vil- 
lages ; Yakunawymen, the largest set- 
tlement, being on the west coast and 
containing about fifty 
houses. The natives are 


LITERATURE 


469 


ure is of wood, bamboo, and straw. A 
shelf projects level with the entrance, 
and the inhabitants are obliged to mount 
this and then crawl in on all fours, the 
doorway not being much larger than the 
entrance to a good-sized dog kennel. 
The room is like a large flat box, some 
7 by 8 feet, and is so low that one lying 
down can almost touch the ceiling with 
uplifted hands; but the savages always 
squat, so the place is high enough 
for them. Human figures and various 
rather pleasing geometrical designs are 
engraved on the interior woodwork; the 


small, averaging only 
five feet two inches in 
height. ‘They are yel- 
lowish hrown in color, 
and, with one individ- 
ual exception, possess 
straight hair, black with 
a brownish tint. 

The habitations of the 
Botel Tobago savages 
are very remarkable, 
not tosay unique. Each 
family possesses a splen- 
did walled and stone 
paved compound, where- 
in are three distinct 
houses, attesting the 
cleverness of the na- 
tives and their desire to 
obtain the maximum of 
comfort. One house, built half under 
ground, is their winter residence. For 
the warmer weather they have a com- 
fortable building, elevated some feet 
above ground, and for protection against 
the heat of summer they have a tower- 
like edifice, sufficiently elevated to catch 
the cool breezes. These huts serve not 
only as habitations, but also as work- 
shops and storehouses. In construc- 
tion a considerable amount of wood is 
used as supports and cross-beams and 
for the inner floor, ceiling, and walls of 
thetwolargehuts. ‘The elevated struct- 


Landing on Botel Tobago 


only other decorations (for such they 
are considered by the natives) are rows 
of animal jaw-bones, hung from side to 
side. The roof is thatched with a strong 
dried grass, and a similar material ap- 
pears on the outer walls. The two 
buildings supported on piles have cir- 
cular boards surmounting each post to 
keep off the large rats that literally 
overrun the island at night. During 
my first two nights in the island I shared 
a tent with Major Kikuchi, but on the 
third night a terrific tropical downpour 
threatened to sweep us out into the sea, 


—————a - s1opueyst yo dnoz3 WV +p prens asouvdel $,1lOspraeq x1Wt ¢ 


(69h oSvd sag) “jvoly Touts Toy pue ‘Toy,wOM PT TUT 10; punoise10j OY} UL Stapuryst 
UO | PUNOTS1opuN “PUT TOF oO { aATFVU B JO SosnoT veIT]] OMT, *c AT} JO Syeoq [NJIyNvaq oT} Jo [eADAVS { aTOYsS ay} Uo Surdmey “1 


VSOULIOT ‘OSeqoT, [aJ0q JO pUvIs] 9} UO soms0G 


uosprArd “A\ seuel Aq sojzouyd 


GEOGRAPHIC 


and we then removed to one of the 
native houses, which we found dry and, 
under the circumstances, comfortable. 

All the boats appear to be of one 
model. ‘They are beautifully rounded, 
and both stem and stern are shaped 
alike, being prolonged upward in a 
graceful curve ending in a point, from 
which, in time of festivity, is projected 
a bunch of feathers or some other deco- 
ration. It is a built-up boat, and, con- 
sidering the crude tools used in its con- 
struction, is a remarkably creditable 
affair. The tribe possess no saws, and 
consequently each plank is adzed down, 
thus obtaining but one plank from a 
tree. These planks, forming the sides 
of the boat, are so carefully shaped that 
they fit very closely. Holes are bored 
near the seams, through which rattan 
lastings are passed and drawn tightly, 
literally tying the parts together. The 
bottom planks are fastened to the strong 
V-shaped keel in the same manner. 
As in the Solomon Islands, the principal 
tool used is an adze. In Botel Tobago 
this implement is so made that it can be 
converted into a chisel by inserting the 
blade end first into the handle. 

There are no dogs or cats on the 
island, which accounts for the great 
pest of rats. Immense rodents as large 
as the American musk-rat literally over- 
run the villages at night. One could 
see them after dark, chasing about the 
place without the least sign of fear, as 
hungry hogs would overrun a garden, 
and it is no exaggeration to say we 
feared the rats more than we feared the 
natives. 


The South American Republics. By 
Thomas C. Dawson. In two vol- 
umes. Illustrated with photographs 
and maps. Vol. I. Pp. xvi-+ 525. 
5% by 8 inches. New York: G. P. 
Putnam’s Sons. 1903. 

Mr Dawson has been for many years 

American consul to various capitals of 

South America. This work is in two 


LITERATURE ALG i 
parts, of which the first is out; the second 
will be published ina fewmonths. The 
present volume describes Argentina, 
Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil. It is 
well written, interesting, and reliable 
and is comntended to all who are seek- 
ing a good book on South America. 
Two South American Republics, Ar- 
gentina and Chile, may be called pros- 
perous; there are evidences of an 
awakening in certain sections of a third, 
Colombia, which may bring equal good 
fortune to that state. Brazil is also be- 
coming unified, and, according to Mr 
Dawson, is developing a solidity as a 
nation which is not generally realized. 
Several of the author’s statements 
about this republic, whose area is greater 
than that of the United States exclud- 
ing Alaska, are worth quoting : 
‘““ Capital is slowly accumulating, and 
a healthful tendency toward industri- 
ous habits and the employment of rea- 
sonable and moderate methods in ex- 
ploiting the great untouched natural 
resources of the country is evident. 
‘Leaving out immigration, the Bra- 
zilian people have shown a steady natu- 
ral increase of nearly 2 per cent per 
annum during this century. The total 
population has multiplied from less than 
three to more than eighteen millions. 
Not a fiftieth part of the territory is 
cultivated; its resources have never 
been studied, much less developed.’’ 
The Brazilians have the additional 
advantage of inheriting directly a Eu- 
ropean civilization. They ‘‘are too 
firmly established, too numerous and 
prolific, and possess a too highly organ- 
ized and deeply rooted civilization to be 
in danger of expulsion or political ab- 
sorption. Immense immigration into 
South America is inevitable as soon as 
the pressure of population is strongly 
feltin Western Huropeand North Amer- 
ica. This may transform Brazil econom- 
ically, but the new conditions will have 
to fit themselves into the political and 
social framework already in existence.’’ 


472 


Mr Dawson expresses great faith in 
the Argentine Republic : 

‘“The industrial impetus already ac- 
quired by the Argentine Republic is 
sufficient to carry it over all obstacles, 
and it seems assured that there will be 
a rapid settlement of the whole of this 
immense and fertile plain. Here Nature 
has done everything to make commu- 
nication easy, and a temperate climate 
insures crops suited to modern Euro- 
pean civilization. 

‘“'T'wo grave perils have so far been 
encountered, namely, a tendency to- 
ward political disintegration and an 
abuse of the taxing power. The for- 
mer is now remote; for since the rail- 
ways began to concentrate wealth and 
influence at Buenos Aires and to destroy 
the prestige and political power of the 
provincial capitals, the naturalstructure 
built by the patriots of 1853 has stood 
firmer each year. 

“Argentina has had a bitter lesson 
of the evils of governmental extrava- 
gance and still groans under the burden 
of a debt which seems disproportion- 
ately heavy, but the growth of popula- 
tion and wealth will soon overtake it, 
and the very difficulties of meeting in- 
terest are the cause of an economy in 
administration, of which the good effects 
will be felt long after the debt itself has 
been reduced to a reasonable fer capita. 
A nation is in the process of formation 
in the Plata Valley whose material 
greatness is certain and whose moral 
and intellectual characteristics will have 
the widest influence on the rest of South 
America.”’ 


In Search of a Siberian Klondike. By 
Washington B. Vanderlip and Homer 
B. Hulbert. With many illustra- 
tions. Pp. xiv + 315. 5% by 814 
inches. New York: The Century 
Co. 1903. $2.00 net. 

One of the most interestingly illus- 
trated books of exploration published 
in along time. ‘The story is well told. 
Occasionally the author slips up in his 


Tue NarionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 


statements—as, for instance, when he 
recommends the United States to 1m- 
port their reindeer for Alaska from 
Kamchatka instead of from Lapland. 
He is apparently ignorant of the fact 
that the United States Government has 
been importing reindeer from across 
Bering Sea ever since 1891, and has 
only once brought reindeer from Lap- 
land, in the winter of 1898, when deer 
were needed immediately to rescue the 
miners inthe Yukon Valley. The Alas- 
kan and Siberian herds could not be 
drawn on then, because navigation had 
been closed by the winter ice. 


BOOKS RECEIVED FOR REVIEW 


The Book of Ser Marco Polo. Trans- 
lated and edited by Col. Sir Henry 
Yule. Thirdedition. With memoir 
of Henry Yule by his daughter. 
Profusely illustrated. Vol. I, pp. 
cli + 462; vol. II, xxii + 662. 6 
by 9 inches. New York: Imported 
by Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1903. 
$16.00 zt. 

On the Polar Star in the Arctic Sea. 
By the Duke of the Abruzzi. 2 vols., 
8vo. With maps and illustrations. 
New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 1903. 
$10.00. 

Aus Insulinde, Malayische Reisebrietfe. 
Von Ernst Haeckel. Illustrated. 
Pp. xi-+ 261. 6% by 9% inches. 
Bonn: Verlag von Emil Strauss. 1901. 

Geographic Influencesin American His- 
tory. By Albert Perry Brigham. 
With many illustrations. Pp. 366. 
5 by 7% inches. Boston: Ginn & Co. 
1903. 

To California and Back. By C. A. 
Higgins. With many illustrations. 
Pp. 317. 5% by 8 inches. New 
York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 1903. 
$1.50 net. 

Vacation DaysinGreece. By Rufus B. 
Richardson. Illustrated. Pp. 240. 
5% by 8% inches. New York: 
Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1903. $2.00 
net. 


GEOGRAPHIC 


American Railways. By Edwin A. 
Pratt. Pp. 309. 5byginches. New 
York: The Macmillan Co. 1903. 


Austro-Hungarian Life in Town and 
Country. By Francis H. E. Palmer. 
Illustrated. Pp. 299. 5 by7%™% inches. 
New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 
1903. 

Handbook of Climatology. By Dr Ju- 
lius Hann. ‘Translated by Robert 
De Courcy Ward. Pp. vi + 437. 
6 by g inches. New York: The 
Macmillan Co. 1903. $3.00 zef. 


Special Method in Geography. By 
Charles A. McMurry. Pp. vi+ 217. 
5% by 7% inches. New York: The 


Macmillan Co. 1903. 


Yearbook of the Department of Agri- 
culture, 1902. Edited by Geo. W. 
Hill. Profusely illustrated. Pp. 912. 
6% byginches. Washington: Goy- 
ernment Printing Office. 1903. 


The Turk and His Lost Provinces. 
By William Eleroy Curtis.  Illus- 
trated. Pp. 396. 6 by g inches. 
New York: Fleming H. Revell Co. 
1903. 

Winter India. By Eliza Ruhamah 
Scidmore. With many illustrations. 
Pp. xvi + 400. 6 by 8% inches. 
New York: Century Co. 1903. 

American History and its Geographic 
Conditions. By EllenC.Semple. Il- 
lustrated. Boston: Houghton, Mif- 
flin & Co. 1903. $1.25 net. 

The Texts and Versions of John De 
Plano Carpiniand William De Ruben- 
quis. As printed for the first time 
by Hakluyt in 1598, together with 
some smaller pieces. Edited by C. 
Raymond Beazley. Pp. 345. 5% by 
8% inches. 1903. Printed for the 
Hakluyt Society, 1903. 

The Philippine Islands. 1493 to 1808. 
Volume VI. By Emma H. Blair and 
James H. Robinson,editors. Pp. 320. 
6% by 9% inches. Cleveland: The 
Arthur H. Clark Co. 1903. 


LITERATURE 


ae] & 


The Heart of Japan. Glimpses of Life 
and Nature far from the Traveller’s 
Track in the Land of the Rising Sun. 
By Clarence Tudlow Brownell. Il- 
lustrated. Pp. 307. 5 by 7% inches. 
New York: McClure, Phillips & Co. 
1903. $1.50 et. 

A Monograph of the Culicidae or Mos- 
quitoes. By Fred V. Theobald. Vol. 
3. Illustrated with plates and dia- 
grams. Pp. xili + 359. 6 by 9 
inches. Published by order of the 
Trustees of the British Museum. 
London. 

Report on the Collections of Natural 
History Made in the Antarctic Re- 
gions During the Voyage of the 
Southern Cross. Illustrated. Pp. 
ix + 344. 6% by 1oinches. Printed 
by order of the Trustees of the Brit- 
ish Museum. London. 1903. 


A Monograph of the Tsetse-Flies. By 
Ernest Edward Austen. With achap- 
ter on Mouth-Parts, by H. J. Hensen. 
Illustrated. Pp.ix-+ 319. 6% by 10 
inches. Printed by order of the trus- 
tees of the British Museum. London. 
1903. 

Proceedings of the American Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science. 
December, 1902—-January,1903. Pub- 
lished by the permanent secretary. 
Volume LIT. 

Central Europe. By Joseph Partsch. 
With maps and diagrams. Pp. 358. 
6 by 9 inches. New York: D. Ap- 
pleton & Co. 1903. $2.00 net. 

Central Asia and Tibet. Towards the 
Holy City of Lassa. By Sven Hedin. 
In two volumes. Illustrated from 
drawings and photographs. Volume 


I. Pp. xvii+ 608. VolumelII. Pp. 
xiv +664. 7 by 9% inches. New 
York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1903. 


Handbook of the Saint Louis World’s 
Fair of 1904. By Charles M. Kurtz. 


Illustrated. Pp. 115. 5% by 8% 
inches. Saint Louis: Gottschalk 
Printing Company. 1903. 


474 


RECENT PUBLICATIONS BY THE U.S, 
GOVERNMENT 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


Birds of a Maryland Farm. A Local 
Study of Economic Ornithology: Sylves- 
ter D. Judd. 

The Animal Industry of Argentina: 
Frank W. Bicknell. 

Egyptian Irrigation. A study of irri- 
gation methods and administration in 
Egypt: Clarence T. Johnston. 

Japanese Bamboos and Their Intro- 
duction into America: David G. Fair- 
child. . 

Three New Plant Introductions from 
Japan: Mitsumata, a Japanese paper 
plant; Udo, a new winter salad ; 
Wasabi, the horseradish of the Japa- 
nese: David G. Fairchild. 


Tue Nationat GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 


Storage of Water on Cache La Poudre 
and Big Thompson Rivers: C. E. Tait. 

The Diminished Flow of the Rock 
River in Wisconsin and Illinois and its 
Relation to the Surrounding Forests: 
G. Frederick Schwarz. 

A Working Plan for Forest Lands in 
Hampton and Beaufort Counties, South 
Carolina: Thomas H. Sherrard. 


U. S. FISH COMMISSION 


Aquatic Products in Arts and Indus- 
tries—Fish Oils, Fats, and Waxes, Fer- - 
tilizers from Aquatic Products: Charles 
H. Stevenson. 

Utilization of the Skins of Aquatic 
Animals: Charles H. Stevenson. 

Statistics of the Fisheries of the Mid- 
dle Atlantic States: Barton W. Ever- 
mann. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


REGULAR MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY 


HESE meetings will be held in the 

Assembly Hall of Cosmos Club at 8 p. 

m. until the new home of the Society, 

Hubbard Memorial Hall, is completed. No 
tickets are required for these meetings. 

December 4.—‘‘ The Work of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry.”’ Dr B. T. Galloway. 

December 18.—‘‘ Karly Spanish Cartography 
of the New World,” by Prof. E. l. Stevenson, 
of Rutgers College. 

January 8, 1904.—Annual Meeting; followed 
by an address by Prof. Wm. M. Davis, of Har- 
vard University, on ‘‘A Summerin Turkestan.” 

January 22.—‘‘ The Work of the Bureau of 
Insular Affairs.”’ Col. Clarence R. Edwards. 

February 5.—‘‘The Work of the Bureau of 
Statistics’ Hon. O. P. Austin. 

February 12.—‘‘ The Work of the Bureau of 
Fish and Fisheries.’? Dr B. W. Evermann. 

March 4.—‘‘The Work of the National Bu- 
reau of Standards.’’ Dr G. M. Stratton. 

March 18.—‘‘ The Work of the U. S. Biolog- 
ical Survey.’’ Dr C. Hart Merriam. 


POPULAR LECTURES 


The Popular Lectures will be delivered in 
the National Rifles’ Armory, 920 G street, at 
8 p. m., on the following dates (tickets are 
required ): 


Saturday, December 12.—‘‘Marches and 
Movements of Arnold and André.’’ By Mr 
W. W. Ellsworth, of the Century Company. 
Illustrated. 

Friday, January 15, 1904.—'‘ Travels in Ara- 
bia and Along the Persian Gulf,” by David G. 
Fairchild, Special Agent of the U. S. Depart 
ment of Agriculture. Illustrated. 

Saturday, January 30—“‘ Joys of the Trail,” 
by Mr Hamlin Garland, author of ‘‘ The Cap- 
tain of the Gray Horse Troop,” etc. Illustrated. 

Announcement of definite dates for the fol- 
lowing lectures in this course will be made 
later : 

““Conditions in Macedonia,’’ by Dr Edwin 
A. Grosvenor, of Amherst College. Illustrated. 

“‘The Louisiana Purchase Exposition.”’ By 
Hon. David R. Francis, President of the Lou- 
isiana Purchase Exposition. Illustrated. 

Provisional arrangements have also been 
made for addresses on — 

Little Known Peoples of Mexico. 

Russia and Japan in Korea. 

The Alaskan Boundary Decision. 


The general subject of the Afternoon Course 
of popular lectures is ‘‘ The Growth of Diplo- 
macy.’’ The special topics and the names of 
the speakers will be announced in a later pro- 
gram. ‘The first of the series will be given on 
Saturday, February 27, and the succeeding 
lectures on March 5, 12, 19, and 26. 

These lectures will be illustrated. 


INDEX 


Page 
Abercrombie, W. R., Work in Alaska Of...........:0..5 IoL 
Abruzzi, Duke of, cited on North Polar routes 431 
—, Book on Arctics by... 472 
Abydos, Excavations at... 358 
Adams, C. C., cited on An 212 
——) TEFETIE? CO). eee e eres censceceerersencrenmnnees 292 
—; United States—I_and and water: I71 
445 
152 
I51 


—, A wild variety of, found in Yucatan 


—, Bales of fiber ready for shipment. 156 
—, Cleaning the fiber of:.. 153 
—, Drying fiber of......... 155 
—, Tresses of the fiber of.. - 154 


—. See Sisal hemp, Henequen. 

Agriculture, American capital invested in.............. 35 
—, Department of. See Various bureaus. 

—, Year Book for 1901 of 
—, —— — 1902 of... 


—'Promoted by U. Ss. “Government 35 
Alaska, Coast Survey work in.. 467 
> Future of....... 104 
—, Gardening in s55 
-,  Geolo ‘ical Survey work in 255, 257) 397 
-, ’ Gold discoveries in.. ~ 257 
—, Importance of reinde 146 
—, Map showing reindeer stations o 131 
—, Notable work on. 300 
—, Opening of.. 79 
—, Reindeer in.. 12 

—, Salmon fisheries of. 118 
—, Signal Corps in.. 467 
—, Telegraph system 467 
—, Trade 3e noueoecagnotseend 106 
—, Wrangell Mountains o + 395 
Alaska Boundary Commission 116, 297 
— — decision.. a 23) 
—— dispute.... 89, I17 
——-—, Map showing. + go 
Alaska frontier, Balch’s 298 
Alexander, King of Servia 59 
Alexander of Bulgaria ..... 54 
Alexander, W. H., Bulletin on hurricanes by 44 
Allen, H. T., Alaskan explorations of. 396 
Amazon, Rubber forests of.. 413 
Amazons, The land of.... 43 
American cotton industry 120 
— diplomacy in the Orient.. -. 259 
American Museum of Natural History. 388, 422 


American Philosophical society: recommends 
founding Coast Survey... 2 

Amundsen, R.; ion “to” Magnetic North 
Pole... 

Andrée, 


y ope o 
Muir Glacier.. 


Andrews, C. L.; 44 
—, Surveys of Muir Glacier by 44 
Animals beforé man in America 43 
Animal Industry, Bureau of... 35 
Antarctic expedition, British. A x69; 210, 297 
——, German. . 109, 296 
— —, Scottish. 10g, 162 
— —, Swedish.... 109, 296 
— explorations, Records of farthest south. . 212 
aay: Commander Wilkes.. 218 
— regions, American claims in. 77 
WENA) Olivarasievccarsenacecacccecer - 109 
Antarctica, Book by E. S. Balch 121, 217 
Appalachian Forest Reserve....... 123, 
— streams, Measurements of southern. 167 
Appalachian Mountain Club, Officers o 39 
Arctic Club, Presidency of....... . 297 
Arctic Expeditions ; Charcot. 217, 296 

—j; Peary +» 379; 430 

—; Ziegler... 82, 251, 297 


Page 
Arctic exploration, Erroneous theories goncerning: 432 
——, History of. +» 420 
——, Value of... = 429 


——. See North Pole; Peary, Ziegler. 
Argentina-Chile boundary award... 
Argentine, Dawson’s book on. 
—, Present prosperity of.......... 
Arriaga, A. L,., cited on Guatemala volcanic di 


turbances.. 


5 MiG 
471 
471 


+ 390 


Asiatic Russia ; Book by. GF, “Wright. 121 
Austin, O. P., Alaskan Report of.. 148 
-, cited on internal commerce of 166 


e 
—, Election of, as Secretary of National Geographic 
_ Society 
; Problems of the Pacific. 
-, Reports of... 
; United States—Her industrie 
Australia, White population of... 
Austro-Hungarian Life, Palmer’ 


Bacon, A. M., Book on Japanese girls by.. 
Bailey, Florence Merriam, Book on birds by.. 
Bailey, Vernon, referred tole eam 
Balch, E. S.; America’s claims in the Antarcti 
—; Book on Antarctica 
—, cited on South Polar regions. 

Balch, T. W.; Book on Alaska frontier. 
Balkan Peninsula, Battle ground of Europe 


ol 16, 298 


Say DULKISH ruleline.yeeevstecssesedseesteesnece 46 
Barnard, E. C., Work in California by. 78 
Bauer, L. A., Magnetic tables by. 121 
—, Magnetic work by....... 82 
Belgrade, Capital of peereial 60 


Bell, Alexander Graham, Judge of Loubat Prizes. 40 
= , referred to 
= Tetrahedral kites of.. 204 
—,; Tetrahedral principle in kite structure............ 219 
—; Resignation as President of National Geo- 
graphic Society ct 
Bell, C. J., referred to. 
Bell, Robert, cited on Canadian forests 
Benguet, Igorrote rice terraces of. 
—, Igorrote town Of...............24 
= Garden of the Philippines 
. Tree ferns of... 
—, White pines o 
Bertholf, E. P., Point Barrow relief expedition of. 145 
—, Siberian reindeer Sesrserele by. co 
Birds of the Rockies.. 

Bingham, Utah, mining ‘district .. 
Blair, R. E., cited on destruction of Amazon rub- 
ber forests... 
Blount, Henry 


tred_ 


Bogoslof Volcano, Description of . 95 
Bond, Fred, Wheat varieties improved by 166 
Bosnia, as an Austrian province 45 
— , Government enterprise in 50 
— Government hotels of 50 

-, Jewish cemetery of. 49 
— under Turkish rule.. 46 
Botel Tobago, Formosan Islan escription of..... 468 


Boundary Awards. See Alaska, Argentina, Canada. 
Boutwell, J. M., Workin Utah . ob 
Brazil, Dawson's book on... 
=; Precious stones from. 
—, Rubber forest of.. 
—, Surveys of........... 
Bremner, John, cited on Alaskan exploration ° 
Brewster, B. B.; Expedition into Texas of Fer- 

nando del Bosque a 
Brigham, A. P., Acknowledgment to. 174 

Book on Geographic Influences on American 
History... ep 


452, 457 


as) 


476 


Page 
Brigham, A. P., Book on Physical Geography by... 21 
—, referred to ...... - 295 


British Colonies, White. population ‘of . 360 
British Columbia forests . oon 107 
Brooks, Alfred H., Explorations: in Alaska Dy 237 
—; Plan for climbing Mt McKinley... 

en LeLeHeG COmncesieeeteasecrssesren 


Bryant, Henry G., referred to 
Bubonic plague, Conquest of. 
Bulgaria, Capital of. 
—, Ferdinand of... 
—; Greek monastery of St John of Ryle 
—, People and country of. 
—, Rulers Off..........--.----2000--- 
Bull, E. W., obtains Concord grape 
Bureau of American’ Republics... 
Bureau of Chemistry, Work of.. 
Bureau of Forestry, Checking sand dunes. 
—, General work of... ne 
—, Report on hardy Catalpa... 
—, Work of, in codperation wi 
= * Work of,in codperation with state poreainen Ge! 213 
Bureau of Statistics, Report on Dalny by .. 4 
— —on Cuba........... 
— — onimmiigratior 
—— on India.......... 
—— on Panama......... 
— —on rubber industr 
—, General reports of... 
Burritt, Charles H; 
pines 
—, Work in the Philippines of.. 


ining Bureau of the Philip- 


Burroughs, John, cited on Alaska gt 
Calaminanes Islands, Philippines, Scenes from..... 202 
California, Big things of.... 230 
—, By-Ways Of........)...-. 121 


—, Grape production of.. 
—, Hydrographic work in. 
—, Raisin production of.... 
—, Reclamation of arid lands i 
—, Wine production Oi ovocconcpacce 
Calkins, F . C.; Report on Washington State water 


y. 
Call, C. J.; Point Barrow Relief Expedition. 
Campbell, 'M. R. ; Reporton Pittsburg coal district. 115 
Canadian Boundary; John W. Foster... p 
Canada, Forests of.......... ¢ 
—, New railway across 
—, White population of.. 
Cape Lazaref. Unimak Island.. 
Cape Prince of Wales, Freighting with reindeer at. 136 
—, Pupils of public schools at.. ; 
—, Residence of Congregationa 
Capital Mountain, Height of... 
Carabao in Philippines, Importance to natives of, 
—, Importations of 
—, Hatred of white men by. 
—, Plague among......... 
Caracas, University at. 
—, View of... 
Carbons, Te argest ever found. 
—, Production Of sce.csceeseesee 
Carleton, M. A., Acknowledgment to 


Carnegie Institution, Grants. 82 
—, Chinese expedition of.... 292 

, Turkestan expedition of .. 215 
Ganpentes Frank G., Book on Pp 43 
Caribbeau Sea, Handbook for navigation fo} 117 
Carter, C F., Book on California by .. 121 
Catalpa, Hardy. Barrera 348 
Castilla rubber tree 409 
Catawba grape, Discovery of 445 
——, Value of. 450 
Census Office, g 175 
Chamberlin, T. C, cited on earth’s s origin. 425 
Champ, W. on Acknowledgment Ores “414 
—, member of Ziegler Polar expedition 251 
Charcot, Jean, Arctic expedition of. 217 
—, Antarctic expedition of.............. 296 


Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE 


Charts, Area covered by hydrographic 
—, Coast..... 
—, General. 
—, Harbor.. 
China, Census of.. 
Cholera scenes in the Philippine 


Clark, C. E., Chart made by... 64 
Climatology, ward’s book on. 473, 
Climate, Effect on insanity of 365 
Coal production of the world.. 315 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, U. S Acknowledg- 
alent to Dye BraZilersneeseeneseneeen =» 262 
= , Catalogue of publications b 83 
—, Discovers Raleigh Rock. 145 
—, Duties of office force of. 4 
—, Field work of. ..... 6 
—, General work of I 
—, History of... I 
—, Magnetic work by 8r 
—, Present organization o 3 
—, Record of address on .. 44 
—, Steamer Pathfinder of.. - 439 
—, Surveying parties in the field 444 
—, Work in Alaska by.... ee 468 
—, Work in Philippines. 9, 437 
—, Workin Porto Rico... =. 8 
Work in United States.. if 
Collier, NS Meg Explorations 255 
Coffin, Edward, Capt. Ziegler Polar Saeon 254, 414 
Collins, G. N., Report on mangoes by... -- 320 
Colombia, Area of... 465 
—, Notes on....... 458 
—, Population o 465 
—, Resources... 465 
Colon, Scenes i 463 
—, Description of.. 458 
Concord grape, Discovery o 450 
IV LLCO fee eneses ce cececcanceeneiicees 450 
i. a oo eD 
Cook, F. A., Mount McKinley expedition of.... 297, 425 


Cook, O. F., Report on Castilla rubber tree 409 
Copper production of the world......... 
oppey River Valley, Explorations of. 

Natural wealth off................:c2seeee000s 
Cornell University, Summer school of geography. 295 
Cotton industry of the United States 


—, Long staple, grown in the United States. 36 
= production of the world.. 318 
Coville, F. V., referred to. 217 
Cuba, Development of. 112 
—, Public lands of. 113 
—, Railways of...... 113 
—, Telegraph system of... li2 
Curry, J. L. M., Obituary notice of.... 117 
Curtis, W. E.; Great Turk and his lost pr 45, 
—, Book on Macedonia by..........2.:+-2ssseesecceecereneeene-e 473 


Dalmiya Buildin gio feces eteseeesascesssseeeeee 
Darling, C. H., cited on Polar exploration... 
—, Correspondence with Peary. 
—* ‘Tribute to... ..---.-------22 


Davidson, James W., Book on Formosa b 
Davies, H.I., cited on Cuban developmen 
Davis, W. M., Expedition to Turkestan b 
Dawson, Yukon Territory, Winter freighting to... too 
Day, David ., referred to. 263, 292, 334, 452 
—, Record of address by 
Dean, Bash ford, Reporton Japanese oyster ‘culture 
by..-. 
Deep sea “Soundings 
Del Bosque, Fernando, Texan expedition of... 
Denmark, Refusal by, to sell West Indian Poses 


sion. 
Departmen of £ g£ 
Department of Commerce and Labor 
Dewey, Admiral, Chart made by... 
Diamond-cutting industry in the United State 
Diamond trust 
Diamonds, World’s production of. 


INDEX 


Page 

Diller, J.S., Report on Crater Lake by.. poo ek 
Draga, pe OMS E Tayldveccnnnenecassseseeseceses 59 
ae Chaillu, Paul, cited on reindeer feeding 137 
, Obituary notice of.. 282 

= Hoy CES cececenoct 283 
Dunn, R. S., Mount Wrangell explorations 405 


—, Attempt ‘to ascend Mount McKinley 
Dye, Eva E., Book on Lewis and Clarke by. 


Easter, S. B. ; Jade.... 
Eckel, E.C., referred 
Eddy, W. A., Kite experiments 
Edson, pion) Joy, referred to 
ohea 


~ 292, 390 
VII, arbitrator pusecnuine:¢ -Chile bound- 


Perea) ‘English, 1 
Egypt, Irrigation of, 
Emerson, Harrington; Op 
Emmons, S. F., referred to 
Emory, Frederick, Acknowledgment to.. 
England. See United Kingdom. 

Evans, A. M., referred to 
Europe, Frank G. Carpenter’s book on.. 


Fairchild, H. L., Book on geology by 
Faris, Mount, View @linanosccragaaseosocccee * 
Farming scenes in the United States 181, 265, 266 
— — —— Philippines 1gQ. 200, 202, 206 
Fenneman. N. M.; Report on lakes of southeastern 

Wisconsin. go 
Fernow, B. #., Bo 
Fiala, Anthony, Commander Ziegler 

dition.. 5 ; 

=>, Letter to Ziegler ‘from. 
=> HOM TEINE CSP avrercrtocens pono 
Fish Commission, Publications by 
Fisher, A. K., referred to. 
Fisher, Joseph, Book on No ye 
Flinders Petrie, W. M., Excavations at Abydos. 


olar expe- 


297, 118, 122 


8 
Flood scenes.. . 286, 333 
Floods of 1903 in United Siates. se» 285 
Florida, Palmettos Of.............0008 174 
Forbes, R. H., cited on Colorado River... 78 


Forestry, Bureau of. See Bureau of Forestry. 
—, Economics of.. n 
—, European methods o 
—, Influence of, on lumber industry. 
Forests of Canada............. -..- 
—, White pine, of Michigan.. 
Formosa, Davidson's book on. 
Foster, John W., Book on American diplomacy i in 
the Orient. 
—, Canadian boun ary. 
—, Counsel for United States in Alaskan Boundary 
dispute OSERECODSLEOO. = C0 sCECEITHE ECO Re Pe Oo as Pere ore ie en 116 
Fountain, Paul, Book on mountains and forests of 
South America...ccccce.--- ee 
France, Manufactures o 
Frankenfield, H.C.; The 
recent floods......... cs 
Fruits, American. exports of. 
Fuller, M. L. referred to 


Gallatin, Albert, Urges establishment of Coast 
Survey .. - 


eys of I uir Glacier by. 
—, Work on BHiEne census by... 

Gaumer, Dr; Report on sisal hemp. 
Geelmuyden. Prof., Acknowledgment to . 
Geographic Congress, International, Organization 


Geographic 
—— — University of Chicago . 163 
Geographic text-books; Gilbert and Brigham’s s 


Physical Geography... reo 21 
SS Se McMurry’ s Teachers? Manual ” 298 
== = C. A. McMurry’s General Method.. 222 


ae 7 


Page 
Geographic text-books; C. A. McMurry’s Special 
Method in 
—— —; W. H. Olm’s Commercial Geography ...... 122 
———; Tarr and F. McMurry’s Complete OES: 


eograp f 
Geographic influences on American history, Brig- 
ham’s book on ecco 
===> , Semple’s book on. 
Geographic Names, Decisions of Board on 


Geographical Society of Baltimore, Officers of....... 392 
Geographical Society of California, Officers of. . 393 
Geographic Society ot Chicago, Officers of... 393 
Geographical Society of Lisbon.. 296 
Geographical Society of New York.. 118 
FROM CET S Olescsceererssececssterssecencenceless 390 
Geographical Society of the Pacific, Officers of. 393 


IP OheMt COL Oseresscnctoneents eacncnctreccesseensasnasess (steerer 118, 255 
Geographic Society, National, Annual excursion 

of ae 
— appoints representative to China 
— — — on Ziegler Polar expedition 
—, By-laws of... 
—, Flag of....-.... 
— > Committee on Election of President. 
—, endorses proposition to bring Smithson’s body 

to America.. 255 
—, Election of chairman of. ‘Geographic Congress, 

McGee nen 
—, Election of Secretary O. P. Austin. 
—, Excursion Committee o oo 
—, Meetings of................ 
—, Membership list of 
—, New home of. 
-, Officers of... 
—, referred to... 


251, 297 


« I, 29, 61, 117, 217, 218, 254 
263, 285, 291, 292, 293, 297, 301, 331, 361 

—, Resignation of chairman Geographic Congress 
Committee, A. W. Greely. ... 
—— — President Alexander Graham Bell 
— — — Secretary A. J. Henry 
—, Work of, in connection with Geographic Con- 


gress «Hace RECORDER SEC CoSHSeSaceCeEnobencoeoCcanccronecacoyeceg5 292, 388 
Geographical Society, Royal, Award of Gill me- 
morial by....... 


—, referred to.. 
—, South Polar exp 
Geography, Erroneous theories concerning... - 432 
Geological Survey, Appalachian stream measure- 
ments by. 
—, Division of Alaskan mineral resources. 
—, Division of Hydrology 
—, Economic work of.. 
—, Explorations in Ala 
—, Hydrographic work of... 
—, Irrigation work of...... 
—, Publications by.. ..... 80, 83, 116, 118, 122, 168, 216, 391 
—, Report on diamonds by. FR COSLUECLERCOROCLRCICOOIOORIONLO 
—, Topographic maps by. 
—, Tribute to.. 
Geology, Elem 50) 
Gerdeau, Captain, cited on destruction o 
ELD DELALOTE SES oie ate aes ON RSIS eI 413 
Gerdine, IT. G., Alaskan explorations of... 161, 255, 398 
Germany, Cause of Denmark’s refusal to sell her 
West Indian possessions. o 
—, Coal production of... 
—, Copper production 
—, Manufactures of... 


—! Steel and iron production of. 317 
Gilbert, G. K., Acknowledgment to. 174 
—, Book on physical geography b: 21 
—, Note on Muir Glacier... 444 
—, referred to. - 244, 254 
—, Report of, as mittee 

of National Geographic Society on scientific work 

of Ziegler Polar expedition. . oH) ss 252 
Gilbert, J. J.. Discovers Raleigh Rock, 148 
—, Work in Philippines of.. 439 
Goode, J. P., Work of... 164 
Goode, Richard U., Obituary notice of... » 424 


478 


Page 
Goode, Richard U., Portrait of... sere 424 
Grand Canyon of the Colorado, Character of. - 163 
—, Rock edges and waste slopes of. 0 
= Survey of... "162 
Great Lakes, M - 328 
Grape industry of United States.. - 445 
— — —, Pictures of...............:.. 446-450 
Greece, Richardson’s book on were A472 
Greely, A. W., referred to. » 252 
—, Report of, for 1903.. a - 467 
—, Resigns chairmanship Conmittee na- 
tional Geographic Congress... . 254 


—, Work in Alaska of........... - 467 

—, Work in Philippines of - 468 

—, Work in Cuba of............ LL 
Grosvenor, Edwin A. ; Review of Foster’s Ameri- 

can diplomacy in Orient 

Grosvenor, Gilbert H.; American developm 

the Philippines... 197 
—j; Appendix of seventy illustrations of kites and 

_ Siatishines used by Alexander Graham Bell....... 

; Benguet, the garden of the Philippines............ 203, 

- "Book reviews 1S /oemoononocaeE3o 21, 42, 43, 83, I19, 120, 217 

298, 299, 425-427, 468-474 

—; British South Polar expedition... socoan ZAKS) 

—,; Conquest of bubonic plague in the hilippines. 185 

—,; Geographic notes..... 26, 29, 35, 39, 40, 78-82, 109-118 

162-168, 197, 213-217, 254, 292-297, 320, 348 

353, 359, 386-391, 408, 422, 424, 425, 467 

Grape-growing industry in the United States.. 445 


i 
ao Notes on Panama and Colombia. - 458 
—; Paul du Chaillu.. =) 282) 
—,; Peary and the Nor’ - 379 
—,; Precious stones....... - 451 
xt Reindeer in Alaska 127 
—,; Rubber plantations in Mexico and Central 
_ America. cone (uerss«:eclersansiacrassiesseee sees 409 
; Some notes on Venezuela. 5 UG 
=) Suggested field for explorat: - 290 
Guatemala, Maps of............... 82 


— Voleani¢ disturbances in. 291, 390 


Guillemot eggs 387 
Hall, William L., Report on hardy catalpa by...... 348 
Hamilton, William, Acknowledgment to. 138, 148 
Harbors of the United States. 5 178 
Sh TN ADISS @EecanconasnsononanoccedacEne - 176 
Hardy catalpa, Geographic distribution o 349 
—-—, Plantation of. 350 
——, Qualities of.. ... 351 
—-—, Report on, by W. L. Hall. 348 


= — Wood of, after lying 90 years in wate 
Hargrave, Laurence, Kite experiments by. 
Harriman Expedition, Referred to .........- 
Hassler, Professor, presents plan for Coast ¢ rvey. 2 
Hayes, © Willard, Alaskan explorations by........ - 396 
—, cited on economic work of Geological Survey... 215 
—, referred to... 
Heilprin, Angelo, 
nique 
—, cited on Mont Pelée. -- 167, 291 
Henequen (Yucatan fiber), Cultivation of........ 150, 157 
—. See agave, sisal hemp. 
Henry, A. J., Report on wind velocity and water- 


ont Pelée and Marti- 
- 121, 167, 291 


level of Lake TSI ee ncerenoccoooccanSNcooDd ORR ICAO RCeCACHO REEDS 116 
—, Resignation as Secretary of the National Geo- 

graphic BYES S75 cccgnonchocodboodboosancbbcananenparceooICTaIeso 425 
Herring fisheries, Report of H. M. Smith on 5 Ung 
Herron, J. S., Alaskan explorations of.. 30 
High plains, Reclamation of.. 8r 
Hill, George W., referred to.. 120 
Hill, Robert T, ‘Acknowledgn 461 
—, Geologic work of.. 207 
—, Photographs by,. 461 
—, referred to....:...... « 291 
Himalayas, Workmans’ ascents in the... 420 


Holder, Charles F. ; Big things of the Wes: 
Hollick, A., Explorations in Alaska. 
Holmes, HE. S., Acknowledgment to.. 
Hovey, E. O., cited on St Vincent eruptions.. 


Tue Nationa GeocraPHic MaGAZINE 


Page 
Hovey, E. O., cited on new cone of Mont Pelée...... ie 
_, Expedition to Mont Pelée by... - 118, 422 
Howard, L. O., Locust fungus supplied by. 197 
Howe, C D., Forestry work of... - 213 
Hubbard, F. Tracy, Kite picture y. - 231 
Hubbard Memorial Hall... oo a 207, 428 
Huggins, P. Foster, cited on St Vincent eruption... 158 
Huntington, Ellsworth, Awarded Gill memorial... 217 
—, Expedition to Turkestan.. 
Hulbert, A. B., Book on Redmen’s Roads. 
Hurricanes, Report on, by Wm. H. Alexan 
Husmann, Geo. C., Report on U. S. gra eindustry. 450 
Hydrographic Office, Branch offices a. 
—, Charts constructed by... 
—, Deep sea soundings by... 


—, Derelicts destroyed by. 73 
—, Foreign surveys by. 63 
—, History of......... 61 
—, Organization of... 6 
—, Pilot charts issued by eam OS) 
-, Publications by. 67, 117 
—, Tribute to.... ...... 7h, 


Igorrotes of Philippines. 
India, Commerce of........ = 183 
Ingram, A. E., referred to... - 296 
Insular Affairs, Bureau of, Publications by.. 112 
Irrigation, Importance of underground waters to. 39 
— in Egypt....-c.ccccecceees 40 
— plans in five states.. -- 165 
Insanity, Geographic 


States . 361 
— in cities and towns 367 
— among colored = 376 
Jack, G., Forestry work of. = 213 


Jackson, Sheldon, Acknowle i 148 
—, Expedition to Lapland by. en - 145 
—, Imports reindeer trom Siberi 127 
—, Official reports by 148 
= _ Urges introduction of reindeer into Alaska from 

Siberia. co lett 


Jade, ‘Aztec reverence for. 16 
—, Chinese uses of............ 5 
Ee Discovery of implements in Europe o Ir 
—, Distribution of........ eG) 
— from New Zealand. . - 457 
—, Mines of, in Chinese Turkestan ay ta 
ey Museums of... ono =) 16) 
Jaggar, T. A., referred t Ys « 20 
Japan, Bacon’s book on women of. 12 
—, Brownell’s book on.... 473 
—, Copper production of. 318 


—, Oyster culture in...... .. eo Hy 


Jarvis, D. H., Mountain named in honor o 399 
—, Point Barrow Relief Expedition by. 145 
Jewish cemetery in Bosnia - 49 


Jefferson, Thomas, Urges founding Coast an 
odetic Survey... 

Johnson, W. D., Acknowledgment to. 

Johnston, Sir Harry, Book on Uganda by.. 


Kansas, Field of watermelons in 
= High plains of....... cdagssccgHenucced 
Kassuroff, Madam, Bulgarian philanthropis 
Keith, Arthur, Work in Utah by.......,...0....... 
Kennan, George, Book on ieee of Pelée 
Keyser, L.S., Book on Birds of the Rockies . 
King, Clarence, Book ou Mountaineering in Sierra 
Nevada... 
Kirchhoff, Cc. 8 
SOUICES......... 3 
Kite construction with Hargrave rectangular cell. 221 
— —— Bell triangular cell.. 
— — — — tetrahedral cell... 
Kite experiments by Alexander Graham Bell. 
——— W. A. Eddy ............. 
—— —Laurence Hargrave 


INDEX 


Beee 


Kite experiments by C. F. Marvin. 220 


SA ye ROCCHI eecceeessercceseee 220 
——— U.S Weather Bureau.. 220 
Kite flying by Chinese, Japanese, and Malays. 220 
Kites, Bell aérodrom 228 
—, Bell floating. + 230 
—, Bell miscellaneou 43, 244, 245 
—, Bell multicellular gian oo Hes 
—, Bell non-capsizable. 239 


—, Bell paddle-wheel 
—, Bell polygonal...... 
—, Bell tetrahedral boat. 
—, Bell tetrahedral cell 


247 


226, 294 


—, Belltriangular box .. 222 
—, Hargrave rectangular box 221 
Kodak developing machine.. 216 
Kunz, Geo. F., Report on precious stones by - 452 


Labrador, Report of Brown Harvard Expedi 

UO): o scuescncrsosaanazosos ngsOsoStuaApooceasecedoD 
Lake Erie, Rainfall and level of. 
—, Testing the currents of........... 


Lake Linderman, Winter freighting on.. 103 
Take Ontario, Traveling beach on shore o 26 
Land grant colleges ...........eeceeee 36 
Langhorne, Report on Dalny by. 260 
Langley, S. P., cited on flying machine 229 
Lansing, Robert, referred to.. 116 
Leighton, W. O., Report on pollution of streams... 80 


Lewis and Clarke Expedition, Mrs Dye’s book on. 121 
Lindgren, W., referred to 


Lippincott, ‘T. B., Work in Californi 80 
Lloyd's tribute to Hydrographic Office . 74 
Logging methods in United States.. 382 
London, Highways and byways of... 122 
Loubat prizes of Columbia University 40 
Lucas, F. A,; Animals before man in Americ 43 


Luebkert, Otto J. J.. member National Geographic 
Society Excursion Committee.. 
Lumbering in Europe.. +. 384 
Lumholtz, Carl; Book on ‘Unknown Mexico ... 121, 298 
Macedonia, Lawlessness i in. eon 
McCormick, f. H., Secretary Geographic ‘Con- 
gress... +++ 292, 390 
McCurdy, ‘A. W. ‘inventor kodak ‘developing ma- 
chine 
—, referred t 


: : 5 294 

McCurdy, David George, Kite pictures b 231 

McGee, W J, Book reviews by. «++ 299, 300 
—elected chairman Geographic Congress Com- 

sees 254, 292 


—, referred to. =» 44, 390 
McMurry, C. A., Book on “General Geography 


aes soma snoncceR ee bEOgcROOSCACCLeECRLECRCGLON 192 
—, ‘‘ Teacher’s Manual of Geography ”’. 298 

= ) referred to... 295 
MeMurry, Frank “Complete Geography ”’ by.. 299 
McNeil. Angus, Book on ‘‘Egregious English”’..... 122 
Magnetic declination tables co WAN 
Mahlo, Alaskan exploritions by - 398, 405 
Mammoth found in Texas. = 389 
Mango, Character of 322 
(1 O)9 or ceecccoet Ceeceeeee ES 326 
— fruit, showing method of packing. 324 
—— — — pealing. 326 


321 
3 z c 325 
—, Introduction of, into United States. 320 


— of Porto Rico.. 


320 
Manila, Botanical g: 197 
—, Chinese labor in.... . 197 
—, Cholerascenesin 192 
— , Improvements i in.. « 195 
Maracaibo, Port of . 20 


Markham, Clements R.,cited on Polar exploration. 432 
Markham, Edward M. Work i in the Philippines by. 418 
Marlott, C. L., cited on San José scale. - 168 
Marwin, C. F.. Kite experiments by. 220 
Mathes, F. E., Explorations of Grand Canyon by. 162 
Maury, Hydrographic work of. 5 (2 
Mazamas, Ounnes of for ae 168 
—, Officers... 394 


Page 
Meacham, F. R., Checks bubonic plague..........-...- 185 
Meakin, Annette M. B., Book on Siberian Yailway. 43 
Melville, Admiral, referred tO... ........:.ccscccecseeee ceeeee 252 


Mendenhall, W. C.; 

gell Mountains... 
—, Report by, on Al 
—; Wrangell Mountains, Alaska. 


Hxplorations among Wran- 


Men-of-war, SurveyS DY.....cscsceecees 
Merriam, C. Hart, cited on Alaska 
— — — Timberline. 


—, referred to......... 
Merrill, Frederick J. H. 

map by... .... Bee 
Meunier, Stanis as, cited on volcanic actio 
Mexico, Tourin, Book by Mrs. James Edwin Morris 122 
Mexico, Unknown, Book by Carl Lumbholtz..... 121, 298 


Michigan Topographic maps of. 41 
—, White pine forests of.. 175 
Missouri, Floods of the.. 285 
Mississippi, Floods of. 285 
Monroe doctrine......... 39 
Mont Pelée, Heilprin’s book on. 291 
—, Hovey’s account of... 422 
—, Kennan’s book on. .. 119 
—, New cone and spine of. 422 
—, referred to..»......... 272, 291 
Moore, Willis L., referred to. 252, 254 


—. See Weather Bureau. 
Moseley, E. L.; Rainfall and level of Lake Erie... 32 
—; Testing the currents of Lake Erie... 

Mossman, R. C., cited on Autarctics.. 
Mount Blackburn, Height o 
Mount Drum, Height of. 
—, Picture of.. 
Mount Everest, 
Mount Gordon, Height of. 
Mouut Hood, View of..... 
Mount Jarvis, Height of. 
Mount McKinley, Attempreds ascent of. 
—, Maip Ofc. i vccarsentenseeneoee 

—, Plans for climbing... 

Mount Regal, Height of. 
Mount Sanford, Height of... 162, 399 
Mount Sorata, Miss Peck’s attempted ascent Of. aso 425 
Mount Wrangell, Height of... 162, 399 
=y Picture Of. ......-.-2.s0-+--- on 
Mount Zanetti, Height of. 
Mountain climbing, World’ ords in 
Muir Glacier in 1903; C. L. Andrew: 


Ge eeGallbert: 444 
— — — —, Map of........... --» 444 
—— — —, Panorama of. 442, 443 


— —, Recent recession of. 
Muir, John, Surveys of Muir Glacier by 
Muldrow, Robert, Alaskan surveys of..... 30 
Murdoch, L. H.; Why Great Salt Lake has fallen.. 75 


Naval officers, Charts made by.. 
Negritos of Philippines....... 
Nelson, BE. W., referred to.. 
Nery, Santa- Anna, Book on 
Newcomb, Simon, cited on flying machin 
Newell, F.H, Acknowledgment to 
New York city, Geologic map of... 

New York State, Geologic map ot. 


—, Grape industry @ierccesasceeepcoon0 450 
—, Physical geography of (Tarr) 121 
—, Topographic maps of.. 41, 168 
New Zealand, Jade from 457 


—, White populationo 


Nile, Subduing the........ 40 
Niukluk River, Freight boat on. 104. 
Nome, Landing at. 100 
Nome region.. 105 
Nordenskjold, 2096 
Norsemen in America 122 
North Atlantic Ocean, Pilot chart. 45 

293) 


North Magnetic Pole, Amundsen’s eapedion to 
—, Ross’ determination of.. 5 ond 
North Polar routes.. 


480 


Page 
Nore Polar expeditions. See Peary, Ziegler, Arc- 
ics. 
Sai CXDIOLALION MV Alle] Olvermsusesseseeseadeee seas eeeeeee see 429 
North Pole, Conquest of, a business pEroposition 435 
—, Moral prestige of gaining.. 0 436 


Ohio, Grape industry of.. 
Ohio River floods ....1........ 
Olcott, George N., Judge Loubat prizes. 
Oregon, Grain fleet of .. 
=, Sand dunes of 


—, Wheat stacks of.. 
Oyster culture in Japan. 


Pacific, Problems of......... 117 
—, Question of, Pezet’s bo 121 
Palmer, T. S., referred to. 119 
Palmettos of Florida... 174 
Panama Canal... 459 
Panama city, History| ° 458 
—, Population of. 462 
—, Scenes of.. 464 
Panama, Repu 466 
— —, Area of........ - 458 
——, Climate of.. 462 
——, Commerce of. 462 
——, Notes on....... 458 
— —, Population of - 462 
——, Scenes of. 464, 466 
Paraguay, Book ++ 83 
Partsch, J., Book on Central Europe b 473 
Patagoni ia, H. Hesketh Pritchard’s book on. 300 


Patterson, Prof., Suggests need of Coast Surve 
Peary Arctic Club, Organization of.. 
—, Tribute to Peary by coccossonneccosIs05C 
Peary, Robert H.; Asserts Pole is atta 
= Be President American Geographica 
ciety 


+ 29; 42 
= , Tribute from Peary Arctic Club to 


—; Tribute from President Roosevelt ¢ 

; Value of Arctic exploration, 

Peck, Annie S, Unsuccessful attempt to ascend 
PORE coocodstigonagpsoacasssasHogcaccas03000000 9 


Perkins, EK. T., Work in California. 78 
Peru-Chile boundary dispute... 121 
Peters, W. J,, Alaskan explorations ° 398 


= , Appointed National Geographic Society Repre- 
sentative on Ziegler Polar Expedition................ 251 

messed with National Geographic Society 
ESF sonodooocad 
—, Portrait of 
Petroff, Ivan, ci 
Pezet, F. A., Book on Peru- Chile boundary. 
Philippine Commission, List of reports by.. 
Philippine Islands, Agricultural opportunities 


- 197, 203 


—, American development o 
—, Blair and Robinson’s series on 
—, Board of Health of... ood 
= ’ Bubonic plague conquered in 
—, Carabaos of. 
= Census of.... 
—, Chinese labor in. 
—, Coast line of 
—, Cholera in 
—, Farming scenes i 
—, Garden of (Benguet) 
—, Gazetteer of... 
—, Igorrotes of. 


—, Mining Bureau of 
—, Non-Christian tribes of. 
—, Official reports relating O.. 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MaGaZzINE 


Philippine Islands, Pygmies of (Negritos).. 
—, SUTVEYING ........-2.0.c20n0 
—, Telegraph system of. 
Phillip, John W., Chart made by. 
Physical Geography, Gilbert and 
Pig iron production of the world. 
PAULO CHATES earsansansawensesoeenssateesnen 
— chart of North Atlantic Ocean 45, 
Pinchot, Gifford, Forestry work of (See Bureau of 
Forestry ) 
Plant Industry, Bureau of, Work o: 
Pogromni Volcano, Description of 
SHINO AC) tesaecacee-tepecoco seed 
Point Barrow gardening. 
— relief expedition......... 
Porter, Russell W., member Ziegler Polar 


(OS yanocence coasson Wapstcosacno ELD ncOIDASNOESUREKOSORAIOED COTES 252 
Portland, “Oregon, “Views of.. 271 
Porto Rico, Coast Survey wo 8 
—, Commerce of, with United States. 294 


—, Mangoes Of........ 22... -200 
—, Rubber plantations for. 
Pratt, J. F., Alaskan work of. 
Precious stones, Production of .. 
Price, Overton W.; Influence of forestry on lumber 
industry 
Prichard, H. Hesketh. Book on Patagonia by. 
Prindle, L. M., Alaskan explorations by........ a 
Provincetown, Mass., Checking sand dunes at ...... 25 
Pumpelly, Raphael, Expedition to Turkestan by.. 215 
Putnam, George R.; Surveying the Philippines..... 
—, Tribute to... 


Railroads and forestry. 
Railways, Canada. 
—, United States... 
— —, Pratt’s book on. 
—, World.... 
Raisin consumption o 
— — — United States......... 
— production of California 
——— United States......... 
Raleigh Rock, Discovery o 
—, Picture of .. 
Ransome, F. L., Rep 
Rats, Carriers of bubonic plague. 
=> Extermination of, in Manila.. 
Reaburn, D: lL. ; Plan for climbing Mount McKin- 
ley 
Reclamation in California. 
—— Colorado. 
— — Wyoming o 
— of high plains... 
— service, Projects of. 
Redmen’s Roads, Book by A. B. Hulbert.. 
Reeves, W. P., cited on white population of Bri sh 
colonies. bnacndaccacadcare coconccddacesunaSnadocEeSDoeoon - 360 
Reid, H. R., Surveys of Muir Glacier by. 
Reindeer express. 
— feeding....... 
— from Lapland 
— from Siberia.. 
—, Importance of, to Alaskan mission stations 
— industry in Alask 
—— — —, Future of... 
—— — —, Bibliography of. 
— loaned ‘by United States Governmen' 
— pictures..---.at. csr 
— stations in Alaska.. 
Ridgway, R., referred to. 
Riggs, Oregon, overwhelmed by sand dunes 
Roberts, Chalmers, cited on Egyptian irrigation... 
Rock carved Distal teeesneaceceeseeesendsssecieete 
Rohn, Oscar, Alaskan explorations by.. 
Roosevelt, President, compliments Peary 
—, Tribute to. by Peary............csscssceeeseeeene 
— urges importance of agricultural education. 
Rose, T. N., cited on mangoes.. 
Rossel, M. A., cited on volcanic 
Rotch, A. L., Kite experiments by....... 


INDEX 


SBE 
Rotch, A. L.., referred to ono A 
Roth, Filibert, forestry work of. 313 
Rubber forests, Destruction of... 413 
Rubber gathering, Views illustra ing . 408 


Rubber plantations in Mexico and Central America 409 


Rubber protection, French school for. « 41g 
Rubber trees, Assam 409 
—, Castilla. 409 
—, Para... 409 
Rubber, V; 409 
—, World’s supply of.. 409 
Rubies, Origin of......... 452 
Russell, I C., referred to. 291 

; Timberlines.... ...... 114 
Russell, Mark, Alaskan e plorations by - 398 
Russian River, California... 23 
Sailing directions. 67 
Salisbury, R. D., Geographic work by. 163 
Salmon fisheries of Alaska........ccc00+0- 118 
Salt Lake City, Annua! precipitation at. 75, 114 
——, Great, Why it has fallen 114 
Sand dunes, Massachusetts. 25 
1 OTE ZOU... cceeee eee ese eee ene 25 
Sandusky Bay, Currents o 41 
San José scale Lebacontecoccnsaoctan 168 


Schlichter, C. S., Report on underground waters.. 
Schrader, Fr oh, Alaskan explorations of.. 255, 
Schwatka, F., Alaskan Explorations ot.. 
Scidmore, E. R., Book on Winter India by... 
Scott, Captain, English Antarctic Expedition 
Seattle-Sitka cable........ 
Sequoias, Views of giant 
Servia, Rulers of.... 


Seward Peninsula. 105 
Shattuck, G. B., referred to. 213, 292 
Shishaldin Volcano, Descript - Qt 
—, VIEWS Off........ cece ee neee ee 93. 94, 97 
Siberian reindeer owners 140, 143 
Siberian Railway......... 5 GB} 
Sierra Club, Officers of. 394 
—, Outing of............... 168 
Sierra Nevada, Mountaineering in. 121 
Signal Corps work in Alaska - 467 
— —— Cuba......... 112 
—— — Philippines. 439, 468 
Sisal hemp, Cultivation Of.........:0:cccceccecseceescesteeeeeees 150 


—. See Agave, Henequen. 
Sitka-Seattle cable 20 
Sloan, Wm. M., puege Loubat prizes . 40 
Smith, GHOMMelERLEGRtOrserccesnncseresnee 

Smith, Hugh M.; Report on herring fisheries 6 
Smith, Middleton ; Gardening in northern Alaska. 355 
Smith, W. S. T., referred to. 


—, — endorsed by National Seprannies Society ; 255 


—_---— Geographical Society of Pacific 255 
Snider Peak, Height of .. 399 
Sofia, Capital of Bulgaria P54 
—, Scenes it.............. m5 7, 
Soil, Different ki 264 
_, Origin Ch osc ecnceeCoH 263 


Souffriére of st paeiceas E p 
= —, referred t0..-0...--..escseeeeee 


=, Mountains and forests of.. 
Southerland, W. H.H., Work of U.S. “Wydrographic 
Office....... 
Spain, Coppe 
Spencer, Alaskan explorations by. 
Spurr, J. E.. Referred to............ 316 
Stambuloff, ‘Stefan, Character o 
—, Murder Off........-20esceceesecesssesees 
Stantord, Leland, Vineyards of. 
Steel production of the bee ee 
Stein, M. A., Referred to... 


Stone, Helen, cidnapping: of.. 
—, Work in Bulgaria of... 


Stubbs, W. J., cited on mangoe E 425 
Sumatra tobacco grown in United 35 
Sven Hedin, Portrait of. 27 
—, Publications,of......... 473 


‘Taft, W. H., cited on agricultural wealth of Philip- 


g 359 
Tarr, R. S.; Book on Complete Geography. 
—, — — Physical Geography, New York Stat 
—, referred to... 
Tea, American. 
Tetrahedral cell, Virtues of. 
— kites (See A. G. Bell, kites) .. 
— principle in kite coustruction ; 

ham Bel lereee ecco oes eecee ee oee eee 
Texas, Expedition of Del Bosque into 
—, Imperial mammoth found in 
Thompson, E. H.; Henequen, the Yucatan fiber... 150 
Tibet, Climate of............. 354 
—, Customs of people of 
—, Dalai Llama of........... 
—, Explorations in, by Zoubikov. 
—, Population of......... ...... 
—, Sven Hedin’s book on 


+ 220-247, 294 
xander Gra- 


=i =--- 473 
DAM DEGIINCS vscsccccnseesececsenne 80, 114 
Tittmann, O. H., Acknowledgment to » 468 
—, Record of address by seco 
- ’ referred to 95, 252 


—, Work of U. S. Coast aud Geodetic Survey snot I 
See Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
Trotter, Spencer; Book on Geography of Com- 
merce.. . 426 
‘Traus- Canadian ‘Railway 
Triangular cell in kite constructio 
Tsetse-Flies, Monograph on......... 
‘Turk and His Lost Provinces ; 
Turkestan, Jade mines of.... 
—, Pumpelly expedition to.. 


Uganda, Book on; Sir Harry Johnston's 
Ulrich, EK. O., referred to... 
Underground waters.... 
Unimak Island, Map o 
—, Mountains on........... 
Unimak Pass, View of Pogromni, Faris, and West- 


dahl peaks from............. 98 
United Kingdom, Coal pro 215, 316 
—, Manufactures of......... 313, 314 
—, Pig iron production in -» 317 
—, Steel production in....... 317 
United States an agricultural community .. 268 
—, Agricultural products of... om 271, 38 
—, Agriculture, Persons engaged i in. 305 
—, Birds of........... o - 119 
—, Climate of, Diversity of 172 
—, Coal production of. 315 
— * Coastal plains of. 177 


—, Coast line of... 441 
—, Copper production of, compared with other 


countries. + 318 
—, Cotton pro - 120, 318 
—, Farming scenes.. - 180, 266-281 


—, Food supply of—Equal toincreasing population, 277 
—, Foreign commerce of. -- 359 
= Geographic distribution of insanity in -- 361 
—, Geographic position Of...... we... - 172 
—, Grape, wine, and raisin production of. 445 
—, Great valley and plateaus of.. 178 
—, Harbors Of.......cccscceessseeeee ars 
—, Immigration of, in 1903 - 391 
—, Internal commerce 0 . 166 
—, Lumberindustry of. 381 
—, Magnetic tables o T 


121 
—, Manufactures of. 

313, 304 
—, ——, Exported., +. 306 
—, ——, Imported... . 307 


482 


Page 

United States, Manufactures of, Persons employed: 

in.. oo 

=, Miles of Tailway ‘of. 
—, Mineral resources of. 
= Mountains of... 
—, Number of far: 
—, Number of farms of. 


—, Precious stones of..... 452 
—, —— in, Production o 451 
—, Population, Density of I7I 


—, Railroad development ir 
—, Rainfall of. 
—, Scenery of. 
—, Steel production of. 
—, Survey of coast of... 
—, Underground waters of.... 
University of Chicago, Geographic department of. 163 


THMIGVER), TEESE Oh Beacecacdooccecnanoagconscn conossnocrosacaRDo06o 102, 368 
Vanderlip, W. B., Book on Siberian Klondike........ 


Venezuela, Area of... 19 
—, Climate of....... 19 
—, Commerce ot .. 21 
—, Discovery of, by de Ojeda... 17 
-—, Geographical relation of, to Isthmian routes 18 


VMermenlen Cn Cerneferned tOsm-screscesssere remanent sree 
Vineyards, Largest of United States and Europe 
Volcanic action, Theories of.. 
— disturbances in America. 


Volcanoes, Bogoslof.. 95 
—, Colima....... 290 
—, Mont Pelée 

9 ROPERROLENIN pocndcecaceca 20s 005cc0 oan 2O0OF=LEQODUCOLDOO=cLaNDScESS 95, 98 
—, Santa Maria. 290, 390 
—, Shishaldin... QI. 93 
—, Souffriére, St Vincen 158, 290 


—, Wrangell 
Ward, R. D., Book on climatology DyY....-.....:1-cseseeeee 473 
Washington, Wericus Lake and Dutch Miller 
Pass... 170 
Watermelons, Field of. - 178, 179 
Waters, Underground, amount of. aa Se) 
— —, Imporcance to irrigation o 39 
——., Motion of. 39 
Watkins Glen, a gorg 22 
Weather Bureau, and the recent floods 285 
—, Kite experiments of. .-. 220 
= ” referred to... 0d 75, 447 
—, Report on West Indian hurricanes by.. meg: 
—, Scottish Antarctic Expedition assisted by. 162 
—, Stations of, on Great Lakes 327 
—, Work of. during 1902. 37, 
—, — —, on Lake Erie. 327 
Weddell, James, Explorations by. . 162 
Weddell Sea, exploration of.. 162 


Weed, W. H., referred to.. 216 


West, Big things of the. 279 

Westdahi, Ferdinand ; Mountains on Unimak Isl- 
and, Alaska 04 

-— Peak, Description ot 95 


— —, View Of.....eeccesseeee 98 


Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MacaZziIng 


Weyster, G. M., Acknowledgment to.. 
Wheat, Improved varieties of.. 
White, William A. Geographical distribution of 

insanity in United States.. 


White Pass Railway... IO 
— population of the chief Briti: 360 
Whymper, Exploration in Canadian Rockies 116 


Wigmore, H. I,., Work in the Philippines of.......... 
Wilkes, Commander Charles, Antarctic explora- 

tions by 
— Land. Account o 


Willis, Bailey, Acknowledgment to 170 
—, Expedition to China 293 
Wilson, James, Report of, as Secretary of Agricul-—5 
ture 35 
Wine production of European nations 451 
—-—w— United States.. 451 
Wisconsin, Lakes of.. Me 
—, Topographic maps of............... 
Witherspoon, D.C., Alaskan exploration of. 161, 255, 398 


Workman, Mrs F. B., Record ascents in Himalayas 
by 

—, Wm. B., Record ascents in Himalayas by. - 420: 

Worcester, Dean C., cited on agriculture in Phil- 
ippines..... co 

—, Report of.. 


Wrangell Mountains, 399 
z= —, Explorations of.........0.. 22... oe 395 
——, Feasible routes for ascent Of.............. 2.2200 .See0 402 
——, Heights of .. ea 399 


— —, Glaciers of... 
— —, Panorama of. 

sia” 
—, Surveys of Muir Glacier by 


Young, T. M., Book on the American cotton indus- 

Ets Vpremeessnconsmonsssncnecnessiepiaenysienessnar! 
Yucatan, Ancient civilization of, 
— Fiber (sisal hemp)... 
—, People of......... 
—, Prosperity o 
Yukon country, Development of.. 


Ziegler Polar expedition. 
— — —, Departure of.. 
— — —, Members of.... 
— — —,, Plans of work of.. 
———, Portraits of officers of. 
—— —, Some dogs of... 
—— —, Steamer of.......: 
Ziegler. William, and the National GeograD ¢ 
Society... moo Za 
Zoubikov, Gc he ‘Explorations: in Tibet by... - 353 


414 
- 415 
. 415 


Errata. 


For Howard read Harvard, p. 82, 1. 27, 1st col. 
For parallels read meridians, p. 414, 1. 14, 2d col.; 
p. 416, 1. 9, 2d col. 


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j NATIONAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE: VOL. XIV. No. 11. 1903 


i ——_—e MOUNTSCANGORD AIC 200 RCE ET: MOUNT WRANGELL, 14,000 FEET MOUNT BLACKBURN, 16,140 FEET 


Panorama of the Wrangell Mountains, taken by W. C. Mendenhall from the 
ridge east of the Dadina River. The picture extends about 85 miles from right 
to left, and covers 2125 square miles, an area greater than the State of Delaware. 
‘The mountains are for the most part masses of lava and volcanic mud which have 
been piled up on an earlier surface. The shapes of the peaks are the combined } 
products of vulcanism and erosion. Mount Wrangell owes its outlines almost 
wholly to volcanic action. Erosion has modified its original form but little. } 
Mount Drum’s contour, on the contrary, is due entirely to denuding agencies. | 
! The original built-up form is gone. Mount Sanford is a volcanic dome, one-half | 

of which has been mined away by a sapping glacier. Mount Blackburn has been 


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PILOT CHART OF THE NORTH ATLA 


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GALES.—tThe figures in the center of each 
'| 5-degree square show for the month of Feb- 1 
|| ruary the percentage of days (¢. e., the num- ! | i ees 
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| gales of force 8 and over haye been 1 ' | 3 
'| Tecorded at some point within the | 

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ESE) 2 NSIS TEN cs TE 


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1 
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1 
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TEE 


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STORM SIGNALS 


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TELCO 


Pennants 5 feet hoist. 12 feet fly 
EXPLANATION. 


Flags 8 feet square 


ra 


Gulf coasts of the United States from East 
to Brownsville, Texas, The stations at 
and Jupiter are 

national Code, a) 
graph the messages of passing vessels. 


r I 


1 
[ai 


_VI. February 13-15, 1899. _ 
February 16-20, 1899. 
February 7-10, 1900. 


February 5- 7, 1900. 
February 5- 7, 1900. 
February 17-20, 1900. 


RECOMMENDED ROUTES FOR FULL AND LOW POWERED STEAMSHIPS, 


Attention 1s called to. the west-bound steamship route along the parallel of 38° N. 
nation of the latest information in its possession leads the U. & Hydrographic Office 
recommend this route for the winter season for vessels of 11 knots and under, 
that low powered steamers will thereby keep out of the region of adverse winds and current Baltanrove 
and gain considerable time. 

Attention is also called to the routes recommended for full and low powered steamships to 
and from northern Europe and the Gulf of Mexico. An examination of the winds and cur 
rents along the routes here shown leads the U. S. Hydrographic Office to recommend them 
to steamships of the classes Indicated. 

Shipmasters are cordially invited to give their experience with these routes. 


| 
I 


from southerly quadrants. 


rete o aes By night a red light indicates easterly winds, and & = 
SE ag ancan white ght above a red light, westerly winds. Southportg/ !~ 
Winds Signal Hurricane Warnings.—Two red flags, with black (a 


Henry 
aling by the Inter- 
to transmit by tele- 


New Orleans E 
a 
| 


Progreso 


It is believed 


Storm Warning Flags—A red flag, with a black 
center, Indicates that a storm of marked violence is 


i expected. 
he pennants displayed with the fings indicate the 
direction of the wind: red, easterly (from northeast to 
| south); white, westerly (from. southwest. to north), 
| The pennant above the flag Indicates that the wind ts es 


expected to blow from the northerly quadrants; below, 


centers, displayed one above the other, indicate the 
expected approach of tropical hurricanes, and also of 
those extremely seyere and dangerous storms which 
Storm signals are displayed by the ee By eater ocstonaliy mora across the 
er us al tla) tc 
atthe Waited States trom Be port, Maine, Hurricane warnings are not displayed at night. 
ape | 


February 11-19, 1902. 


Anexamt 


e 


Washington, 


kes and northern 


= 

es 
Cente. 
od boas houin i orokontiomamn 


(0) 


T2\0F10/5.0520) 


ESTABLISHMENT OF TIME BALL AT 
BOSTON, MASS. 


Office, Boston, Mass. The 

from the roof of the Ames Building, corner 
oR 

ing in ton; t! is of b can- 

TRACKS OF CYCLONIO vas, 4 feet in diameter; the mast is 41 feet 
STORMS HIER Se Dsoe 228 feet Bis the side- 

walk, and 268 feet above mean low water. 

IN FEBRUARY. ‘The ban will be hoisted at 11.55 a. m. every 
and national holidays, 
00m. 00s., 75th meridian 


February 2-10, 1897. ie @rrppt Sunde 


February 16-18, 1897. time. 
February 9-11, 1897. instant of noon, the ball will be hoisted and 


February 19-28, 1898. slowly lowered at 13.05. 
February 1—.5, 1899.- PPP 


January 27—February 8, 1902. 


New York pe TK Th. Lights: 5 
ERE NL 


Philadelphiase 


Adfive Fachidly Bank 


STF ae ene) 


FOG.—The figures in the center of each one-degres 
square show for the month of Webruary the percent- 
age of days (i. ¢., the number of daysin each hundred) 
upon which fog has been retorded within the given 
square during the five-year period 1898-1902. 


Farewell 


yuu 


uuu 
x 


TOO ar 
Pa 


/ 


LAN Db 
Dublings & 


S$ C/O TIL. 


D 


Glasgow 


2 Fi 


feertrrre reer 


GO! 


GALE AND STORM SIGNALS 


. FOR GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 


sTEsMse® ROUTES 


y i oe 
‘ANSATLANTIC STEAMSHIP COMPAN, 
E ROUTES AND THEY ARE NOW ACTU ZL 


Nee if 
PeANUASGIE 
=a 


G. aT 
a tar 


7.3 


ae gu 
bch. PERCY & LILNE 
abl orn /B 


ol, 


We ™. 
Bermudi “, 


ee eee 


pestwouno Kb 


ROUTE EG 


sy 
»—O« 


The cone point| The cone powrt 


downy ds indi- 
cates the proba 
Diliy of strong 

winds at first trom the 


upwards idi- 
cates the proba- 


bility of strong 
winds at first from. the 


avre A 


TEECEL 


South (passing from S 


Worth (passing trom. 
E, to NW. through. 5) 


W. to SE, through N) 


r suspended trom the 


Three lights of like colo 2 
lace the cone atnight. 


corners of a triangle rep 


CEE 


FOR FRANCE AND PORTUGAL. 


A cone point up- 
wards above the 
cylinder indi- 
cates the proba- 
bility of a very 
heaxy gale from 


ns 


cates the proba- 
biley of a very 
heavy gale from \\| 


ordeaux 


The cone poirt 
down ds indi- 

cates the proba- 

bility of strong 

winds at first trom the 
South (passing from S. 
DOT TOUGH 


The cone poit 
upwands wuli~ 
cates the proba- 
bility of strong 
winds at first trom, the 
North (passing fromN. 
1] ace ETT OUGHT) 


<< 
c ve) 
Santa | 


=i 


South America. 


| crossing. | crossing. 


EQUATOR CROSSINGS FOR SAILING PASSAGES IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 


< = 
ig Although the most favorable point for sailing vessels to cross the equator, during any month, 


may be found by inspection of the Pilot Charts for the corresponding month of the previous year, 
the Office publishes ox the Pilot Charts, for the benefit of mariners who have not retained their 
old files, a table of crossings in both the Atlantic and Pacific for certain months In advance. 

This table gives the data forships north bound in the Pacific from Cape Horn or west coast of 


Route. | Month of | Longitude of | 


-| 116° 40" W, 


(| April 
Bonnd for United States. || May- 118° 00" W 
June 118° 00’ W, 


3 uy longitude 90° W.) a8 follows; April, 20¢8.; May, 25°S.; June, 
cep 


FORECAST FOR FEBRUARY.—Along the transatlantic routes foul weather with 
W'ly gales, high seas, and frequent snow 

eridian the wind will blow 69 per cent of th 
ent of the time from the NW. quadrant); from 40°-20° W., 63 per cent of the time from 

e western|semicircle (32 per cent from the/N W. quadrant); east of 20°, 58 per cent from 
(34 per cent from the SW, quadrant), 
jubchart, attaining a maximum frequency throughout the region 45°-50° N., 25°-45° W., 

a rule setting in at SE. and shifting in sudden and violent squalls to NW. 

Along the American coast north ot Hatteras winds from the northern semicirole will 
prevail (65 er cent). Gales frequent, as shown. 

Over the pastern half of the ocean the normal winds are apt to be disturbed by 
cyclonic coiditions, the center of the system hovering several days in succession in the 
vicinity of the Azores. During such periods the wind relations on the sailing routes 
between thd channel and the equator and north of 25° are reverse, 

Throughout the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies fresh trades 
in the Gulf pf Mexico at times reaching as far south as Colon. 
uent, as shown on subchart. 
he\Grand Banks are free from bergs, Field ice may, however, be looked for 


ie western|semicircle 


mth. 


SEEE EEE EEE 


nonths will meet the SE 


From Sandy Hook to the 40th 
m the western semicircle (44 per 


Gales, as shown in the 


dd. 
willprevail. Northers 


iS 
Tampa 


Campeche 


BRANCH HYDROGHAYRIC OFFICES 


EERE CCEET py Cee 


BOSTON: Cusiomhonse 

NEW YORK: Maritime Exchange 

PHILADELPHIA: Bourse Building 

BALTIMORE: Customhouse 

NORFOLK: Customhouse 

SAVANNAH: Customhouse 

NEW ORLEANS: Customhouse 

GAVE STON ‘Levy Building 

SAN FRANCISCO: Merchants'Fxchange 

PORTLAND, ORE! Customhouse 

PORT TOWNSEND: Customhouse 

curcaco: Masonic Temple 

CLEVELAND, onto: The Arcade 

BUFFALO, N.Y: Pradential Building 
STE. MARIE. uren. NewsBuildg 

DULUTH, MUNN.,Torrey Building... 


Too eee 


) 
| 


ee 
ISOBARS AND ISOTHERMS; 


FOR THE 


MONTH OF FEBRUARY 


Tsobars.30 tnahes ani above —— ~|\~ 
Isobars below 30 inches \- 


| Tsothermsrin weer 
fi £ 


NY 


Washington 


Bf neipsing 


4 Corrections for || 


temperature to be 
Japplied ta the read-\| 


of mevennal baro-|\ 


Fmuter's in order to compare|| 
the aunospherte pressures || 
uulicated. by them with the 


values itulicaled on this chart} 


40 
| 
! 
30 
: 
i 


At the Branch 
Hydrographic OF 


fices barometers aru 


thermometers are com 
pared with standards fi 
coud the latest informa n alates oy 
be obtained regarding charts, lights, dangers to 
navigation, and all mutters of interest to mariners. 
Navigators of every nationality are invited to avail 
themselves of the benefits of these offices, and. to co- 
opernte with the Hydrographic Office at the Navy Depe 
ment in Washington by sending in prompt and. complete 
reports of marine data upon their arrival in port. At places 
outside of the United: States such communications may be 
handed ta the U.S. Consul who will mail them without cost 
to the seniler. In reporting a derelivt vessel on dnifting buoy 
spectal care should be taken to state its position'and give as 
2 description ax possible, in order that it may he identified 


oY 


\ 
ws 
NY, 


§ exc 


arfinique—- 


St ome 
L— | & Barbados ¢ ™ 
nl 


20) 


The. Chart shows the average pressure and temmpera* 


normal conditions anticyclonic areas cover the American and) BLO BCOOLE 
the European continents, a connecting ridge extending across) froma W ly direction e: 
having its central line in latitude 30° N..A trongkh ——_Along. the 1 


Seg 


me SW'ly (the prevailing 


On the equatorial slope the changes of pressure from day to 
are slight, and the prevailing winds (the NE. trades) are 


Too 


To 


Ste 


ax ep DERELICTS AND WRECKS — The name of’ the vessel is given.unles 
been ascertained: and the syinbol represents, as far as possible-her rig and the conditionin | 
1 at the date set opposite to her position. The successive positions in 

sen seen at the dates indicated, are joined by lines of dashes 


whieh she has 


ICEBEROS AND FIELD [CE _ The shaded symbols represent reports received af 
ter the 20th ult. Each report of ice seen along a given (rack is represented by a straight 
nbols placed at the first and last positions at which ice was seen and 
1 number of bergs written upon it. The numbers opposite the synibols 
at the ends of the line ave the dates referved to by the report | 


WATERSPOUT REGION OF FREQUENT FOG 


TO ee eee 


line joining the 
having the observ 


A. 4 DRIFTING BUOYS 


EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNIFICANGE OF THE COLORS AND SYMBOLS 


STORM TRACKS.—The several red lines indicate the path followed by 
the center of each of the more severe cyclonic storms that have occurred | 
4 during the month of Febi 

of the storm center at Greenwich mean noon are indicated by si cireles | 
|] with dates set opposite to them. | 


in previous years. The successive itions | 


} 


it has not 


Thi information in BLUE gives a general meteorolog- | 
jeall frecast, with deductions therefrom, for the month of 
‘ebrary. 


Thetracks of some of the more important storms that | 
have ocourred during February in previous years are | 
show in RED. | 

| 


MAGNETIC VARIATION. The lines of equal 


Magetic variation for every degree for the cur 


rare shown by lines of fine dots | 


rent 


OCEAN CURRENTS _The vearly average set of | 
the stream and drift curvents is shown hy the | 


small blaek arrows. 


PREVAILING WINDS AND CALMS.—The wind rose in each 
6-degree square shows the character of the winds that may be 
expected within that square during the current month, The 
arrows fly with the wind. The length of the arrow, measured 
(from the center of the circle) on the attached scale, gives the 
percentage of time (number of hours in each one hundred) that 
the wind may be expected to blow from the given point., The 
number of feathers shows the average force of 
Beaufort scale. The figure in the center of the circle givy@ the 
percentage of calms, light airs and variable winds. 


the wind on the 


For EXAMPLE, the attached wind rose should 
beread thus: In each 100 hours the wind niay be 
expected to blow 18 hours from NE., average 
force, 3; 10hours from Hast, average force, 3; 3 
hours from SE., average force, 4; 25 hours from 
SSE., average force, 3; 10 hours from SW., 
average force, 3; calms, light airs and variables, 
13 hours. } 

0 20 30 49 50 60 70 30 “S100 
Tocco beer cho coker 

SCALE OF WIND PERCENTAGES 


REGION OF EQUATORIAL RAINS y a 


Amazon be 


s 
5 
i <p 


i 
suREROE DOE RUSHEBS SERS SQUBUSHES OEE EGUsNSHeEE SEES ESCNUNBERee RBGEGStsyoonu0aeooe0RSssas0sHeqqNeeusERGsEusueeH DEAGREpuDuGaHEGoEERaREaT 
= =a 4 


EOC PEE EEE Ee Eee 


2 ? Ge “S 
. pe Ce Bees 
RR Sel es ete, 
4 w“ 


Hagugaeauuseehess hpeeaan jfger eeeomeanaqenen pane 


50" ao 


of low pressure (29.95 inches) extends east and west along the consist in an interchange of periods throughout which 
equator, and a decided cyclonic area has its center in the 
Peet of Iceland, where the average pressure for the month 

Nerds The prevailing winds blow from the regions of high toward 
the regions of low barometer, the earth’s rotation, howeyer, 
serving to divert the motion of the air (in the northern hemi- 
sphere) constantly toward the right. 
would thus otherwise appear on the equatorial side of the 
ridge of high pressure become NE'ly (the NE. trades); the 
Jly winds of the polar side beco: 


falling light at the time of minimum, increasing in force and 
hauling to westward in sudden shifts during the subsequentrise- 
These changes of wind and pressure follow each other much 
more rapidly in the case of a westward-bound vessel than in 
The N’ly winds which the case of an eastyward-bound, owing to the fact that the suc- 
cessive troughs of low pressure have themselves an eastward 

motion. The rate at which the observer and the barometric 
depression approach each other is thus in the former case the 
sum of his own westward velocity and the eastward velocity 
of the trough; in the latter case the difference of these velocities. 


Charts Published, Canceled, and Extensively Corrected from 


December 31, 1902, to January 30, 1903. 


CHARTS CANCELED. 


1 
adex¥-Southern Groups of Pacifc Telanda, (Canceled by Index charta W, ¥ and Z. 
~Aggerica, Argentine Republi rp ntagonia: 


\\ CHARTS EXTENSIVELY CORRNCTED. 


7. Nort America)—East Céast of Mexicb: Port of Vera Gruz. 

Si. Mediterranean Western Sheet. = 

. North America.—United States and Canada: Lake Hiuron and Georgian Bay, 
pine PO Se yte, with Neigh! 

foundland.—W 


est Coast: Bay of Islands. 


90° 


OUESS08000038R00000 


accordingly fairly constant in direction and of good force. 
ture of the atmosphere for the month of February.—Under On the- polar slope the daily changes are considerable, and 


ii} 


the winds are accordingly constantly shifting, although those 
xhibit a majority. 


iE 


barometer is alternateiy below and above the average, the 
wind backing to southward or SH., with falling barometer, 


SUGRBURoneoE 


10 


sAUBEDEGOGUREENUESenaAUOE! Teo 


aa 


a eeeeen 


ita, Cruz River. 


ing Islands and Channels. 


FAO 


ToC g Sus HECELD AUREL SEEESEES SUS 0RUSUSUMSE GSE peREeSne! 


0” 


Editett hy sTariex Fi, 


PUBLISHED MONTHIY AY THE HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE, 


Bureau of Kqupment, Department of the Navy Washington, DC, 


WITH Southerland Commander USN. Hydrograp her 


Gr: Nootzel, Chier Lithographer 


NoJ400 


| Mn 
_ 3 9088 01299 3259